Experiments (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Experiments
Experiments are a research method primarily associated with positivist sociology, though they are rarely used compared to natural sciences and psychology. This is due to fundamental ethical and practical problems when studying human behaviour in controlled conditions.
Unlike in the natural sciences, experiments in sociology face unique challenges because human subjects are conscious beings who can alter their behaviour when they know they're being studied.
Why researchers use experiments
Positivist sociologists support research conducted under controlled conditions, yet even they rarely employ experiments. The main reasons include ethical concerns and the artificial nature of laboratory environments. Human behaviour is complex, and people do not behave naturally when they know they are being studied.
Interpretivist sociologists particularly criticise experiments because humans are conscious beings who understand when they are being observed. This awareness makes it impossible to observe genuine natural behaviour, leading to inconsistent results. This creates arguments for covert experiments, which raise serious ethical issues as participants cannot provide informed consent.
The fundamental challenge of experiments in sociology is the observer paradox: the very act of studying human behaviour can change that behaviour, making it difficult to obtain genuine, natural responses.
Laboratory experiments
Laboratory experiments are occasionally used in sociology for specific purposes. Karl Popper (1959) advocated a deductive approach to research, where researchers begin with a theory and test it against empirical evidence. This differs from conventional sociology where theories typically emerge from evidence.
Variables in experiments
Understanding variables is essential for experimental design and forms the foundation of experimental methodology:
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Independent variable: The factor that researchers deliberately vary or manipulate. This represents the presumed cause in the relationship being studied.
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Dependent variable: The outcome or response that researchers measure. This represents the presumed effect that may result from changes to the independent variable.
When variables are controlled in experiments, they are either kept constant or systematically changed to measure their impact. However, controlling sociological variables like income, social status, or popularity presents both ethical and practical challenges.
Worked Example: Bandura's Study of Media Violence (1965)
A classic psychological experiment relevant to sociology examined media violence effects on children:
Participants: Children exposed to filmed violence
Procedure: All children watched a film of a man hitting a Bobo doll with a mallet. Children were then divided into separate rooms with different conditions:
- Group 1: Man criticised for violence
- Group 2: Man praised for violence
- Group 3: No comment on the man's behaviour
Findings: Children who saw the man criticised showed the least aggressive behaviour when later placed with a Bobo doll
Evaluation: Critics argue the artificial laboratory setting provides little insight into real-world behaviour
Field experiments
Field experiments attempt to address the artificiality of laboratory settings by conducting research in natural social environments whilst isolating specific variables. These are sometimes called 'natural experiments' because participants remain unaware they are being studied.
Worked Example: Raban's Homelessness Study (1991)
Jonathan Raban studied homeless people in New York by adopting two different identities:
- As a pedestrian, he focused on an imaginary distant point to avoid eye contact
- As a 'street person', he sat on a fire hydrant and observed how pedestrians treated him as part of the street furniture
This simple experiment revealed the emotional experiences and social treatment of different groups on the street.
Worked Example: Sissons' Social Class Experiment (1970)
J.W. Sissons used the same actor in two different outfits to test social class effects:
Condition 1: Actor dressed in suit and bowler hat Condition 2: Actor dressed as a labourer
Procedure: Actor asked strangers for directions to Hyde Park using identical questions
Findings: People responded more positively and provided more detailed directions when the actor appeared middle-class
Conclusion: Social class was the key variable affecting people's willingness to help, as all other variables remained constant
Comparative research
Comparative research represents a sociological interpretation of experimental principles. Researchers like Émile Durkheim (positivist) and Max Weber (interpretivist) used comparative methods to systematically examine differences in social phenomena between groups within society. This approach allows researchers to observe relationships and correlations by treating the social world as a natural laboratory, making it particularly useful for testing hypotheses about causal relationships.
Comparative research offers a middle ground between the artificial constraints of laboratory experiments and the complexity of natural social settings, allowing sociologists to maintain some control while studying real-world phenomena.
Advantages and disadvantages of experiments
Advantages
- High reliability: Experiments can be repeated multiple times under identical conditions, making results highly reliable
- Controlled conditions: Reflect positivist beliefs about scientific research methods. Structured organisations can facilitate controlled conditions
- Precise predictions: Enable researchers to test specific theoretical predictions through systematic evidence collection
- Cause-and-effect relationships: When variables can be measured and controlled, experiments can demonstrate causal relationships - a key goal of positivist sociology
Disadvantages
- Experimenter effect: Participants may alter their behaviour when aware they are being studied, producing unreliable results
- Artificial environment: Laboratory settings create unnatural conditions that reduce the likelihood of genuine behaviour
- Replication difficulties: Most laboratory situations cannot replicate normal life conditions or control all variables affecting behaviour
- Ethical concerns: Covert experiments raise serious ethical issues as participants cannot provide informed consent
The experimenter effect and artificial environment represent the two most significant challenges facing experimental sociology, often making laboratory experiments unsuitable for studying complex human behaviour.
Key studies
Worked Example: Mayo - The Hawthorne Effect (1925)
Elton Mayo conducted research at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company to improve worker productivity. The research team implemented various interventions but found inexplicable variation in results. They discovered that productivity changes resulted from workers knowing they were being studied rather than from any specific interventions made by researchers.
This Hawthorne effect has become a recognised phenomenon where the act of observation itself influences behaviour, highlighting a fundamental challenge in social research.
Key Points to Remember:
- Experiments are rarely used in sociology due to ethical constraints and the complexity of human behaviour
- Laboratory experiments provide control but create artificial conditions that may not reflect real-world behaviour
- Field experiments offer more natural settings but present greater challenges in controlling variables
- The experimenter effect and Hawthorne effect demonstrate how awareness of being studied can alter participant behaviour
- Understanding independent and dependent variables is essential for interpreting experimental research