Indian Wars, 1862–1867: 2 (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
Indian Wars, 1862–1867: Escalating conflict
The period from 1862 to 1867 marked a significant escalation in hostilities between Native American tribes and white settlers, with the American government playing an increasingly aggressive role. These years witnessed some of the most brutal confrontations that would have lasting consequences for Plains Indians and their relationship with white Americans.
This period coincided with the American Civil War (1861-1865), which initially diverted government attention and resources from western territories, creating a power vacuum that contributed to the intensity of these conflicts.
Sand Creek Massacre, 1864
The Sand Creek Massacre stands as one of the most notorious examples of violence against Native Americans during this period. The incident occurred during the broader Cheyenne Uprising, when Cheyenne warriors had been conducting raids on waggon trains and stealing food supplies.
Under the leadership of their chief, Black Kettle, the Cheyenne had been working towards peace negotiations with white Americans. Despite their peaceful intentions, Colonel Chivington commanded American forces to launch an assault on their settlement at Sand Creek on the morning of 29 November 1864.
The Sand Creek Attack: A Detailed Account
Morning of 29 November 1864:
- Cheyenne displayed white flags as symbols of surrender
- Colonel Chivington had issued orders to "eliminate and devastate" the Plains Indians
- Attack resulted in deaths of more than 150 Native Americans
- Many chiefs, including Black Kettle, managed to escape
- Survivors spread word of the massacre to other Plains Indian tribes
Even though the Plains Indians displayed white flags as symbols of surrender, Chivington had issued orders to "eliminate and devastate" the Plains Indians. The attack resulted in the deaths of more than 150 Native Americans during what became known as a dawn raid.
The Sand Creek Massacre violated established military protocols for treating civilians and those attempting to surrender, making it a war crime by the standards of the time. This event fundamentally destroyed trust between Plains Indians and white Americans.
Red Cloud's War, 1866–1868
This conflict emerged from tensions surrounding the Bozeman Trail, which had been established in 1863 by miner John Bozeman. The trail provided a crucial connection between the Oregon Trail and Montana, where gold discoveries had attracted many prospectors. However, the Bozeman Trail passed directly through Cheyenne, Sioux, and Arapaho hunting territories, violating the existing Treaty of Fort Laramie.
The Bozeman Trail was economically vital as it reduced travel time to Montana goldfields by several weeks compared to alternative routes. This economic pressure made conflict almost inevitable when the trail cut through sacred Native American hunting grounds.
Red Cloud, a prominent chief of the Lakota Sioux, organised attacks against white settlers from 1866 to 1868, leading to what became known as Red Cloud's War. The conflict proved costly and challenging for American forces.
Fetterman's Trap, 1866
During Red Cloud's War, the American government had established Fort Phil Kearny, and Plains Indians began concentrating their military efforts around this location.
Fetterman's Trap: A Strategic Ambush
December 1866 - The Setup:
- Small group of Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho warriors positioned near Fort Phil Kearny
- Warriors launched attack on woodcutters as bait
- Captain William J. Fetterman led 80 soldiers out to protect the woodcutters
The Ambush:
- Fetterman's force walked directly into a carefully planned trap
- Much larger Native American force waited in ambush
- All 80 soldiers were killed in the engagement
- Plains Indians strategically blocked rescue routes
Result: Complete tactical victory for Native American forces
Following this devastating defeat, the American government entered into negotiations for a second Fort Laramie Treaty in 1868. Through this agreement, the government committed to abandoning three military forts and closing the Bozeman Trail, while Red Cloud agreed to relocate his tribe to a significantly smaller reservation situated between the Black Hills of Dakota and the Missouri River.
Consequences of the Indian Wars
The Indian Wars of this period created a cycle of escalating violence and mistrust that had profound implications for all parties involved:
Impact on Native American communities: American military forces increasingly targeted Indian settlements, destroying lodges, horses, and essential food supplies. This systematic destruction forced Indian tribes onto progressively smaller areas of inferior land, making traditional ways of life increasingly difficult to maintain. Disease, famine, and continuous warfare significantly reduced Plains Indian populations during this period.
The deliberate destruction of resources was a military strategy known as "total war" - targeting not just warriors but the entire economic and social infrastructure that supported Native American communities.
Changing relationships: The massacre at Sand Creek demonstrated to Plains Indians that white Americans could not be relied upon to honour their commitments or respect peaceful overtures. This breakdown in trust made future negotiations and peaceful coexistence much more challenging to achieve.
Government policy evolution: The relationships between Plains Indians and white Americans continued to deteriorate, ultimately leading to the implementation of a small reservations policy. This approach was reinforced through legislation such as the Medicine Lodge Treaty (1867), the Fort Laramie Treaty (1868), and the Indian Appropriations Act (1871).
The shift to a reservation system represented a fundamental change in U.S. policy from coexistence to forced assimilation and territorial confinement. This policy would dominate Native American relations for the next century.
Continued migration pressure: Despite new treaties and agreements, rumours of gold discoveries continued to attract white migrants to the region, making further conflict almost inevitable as territorial pressures intensified.
Long-term implications: By the time of the Battle of the Little Big Horn (1876), many white Americans were demanding that Plains Indians either adopt white American customs and lifestyle or face removal from their ancestral lands entirely.
Timeline of major events
- 1863: John Bozeman establishes the Bozeman Trail through Native American hunting grounds
- 1864: Sand Creek Massacre occurs on 29 November, killing over 150 Plains Indians
- 1866: Fetterman's Trap results in the death of 80 American soldiers
- 1866-1868: Red Cloud's War takes place over control of the Bozeman Trail
- 1867: Medicine Lodge Treaty signed
- 1868: Second Fort Laramie Treaty negotiated, ending Red Cloud's War
- 1871: Indian Appropriations Act passed, further restricting Native American rights
Key Points to Remember:
-
The Sand Creek Massacre of 29 November 1864 marked a turning point in Plains Indian relations, destroying trust between Native Americans and white settlers despite peaceful intentions from leaders like Black Kettle
-
Red Cloud's War (1866-1868) demonstrated that organised Native American resistance could force the American government to make concessions, including abandoning forts and closing the Bozeman Trail
-
Fetterman's Trap showed the military effectiveness of coordinated Plains Indian tactics, resulting in the complete elimination of an 80-man military unit
-
The systematic destruction of Native American resources (lodges, horses, food supplies) was a deliberate strategy that forced tribes onto smaller, poorer quality reservations
-
These conflicts established a pattern of escalating violence and broken promises that would continue to characterise relationships between the American government and Plains Indians throughout the 1870s