Reform and reformers (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
The 'new' trade unions
Background and context
During the 1850s and 1860s, trade unions primarily represented skilled craftsmen who had significant bargaining power due to their specialised abilities. However, this began to shift dramatically in the 1880s with the emergence of what historians call the 'new' trade unions. These organisations represented unskilled and semi-skilled workers who had previously been excluded from union membership.
The development of new unionism was closely linked to broader social changes occurring in Victorian Britain. Despite various social reforms, the gap between rich and poor continued to widen, creating tensions that would fuel working-class organisation.
The distinction between 'old' and 'new' trade unions was crucial: traditional unions focused on skilled craftsmen with individual bargaining power, while new unions organised previously excluded unskilled workers who could only gain power through collective action.
Social changes that enabled new unionism
Several important social developments created conditions favourable to the growth of new unions among unskilled workers:
Urban social segregation: Wealthy people increasingly moved away from city centres to suburban areas, leaving behind distinct working-class communities. This geographical separation allowed working-class culture to develop more independently, including the growth of working men's clubs and football clubs that became centres of community organisation.
Educational improvements: The introduction of compulsory education significantly increased literacy rates among working people. This meant more workers could read newspapers and follow political developments, making them more aware of their rights and potential for collective action.
Political reforms: The introduction of the secret ballot in 1872 meant working men could vote without fear of employer retaliation. This encouraged greater political participation among the working classes and gave them more confidence to organise.
These three interconnected changes created a perfect storm for working-class organisation. Geographic concentration built community solidarity, education provided the tools for political awareness, and voting reforms gave workers the confidence that political change was possible.
These changes created an environment where unskilled workers, who had little individual bargaining power, began to see the potential for collective action through strike activity.
The match girls' strike, 1888
The Bryant and May match factory strike became a landmark moment in the development of new unionism, demonstrating that even the most vulnerable workers could organise successfully.
Working conditions and pay: The predominantly female workforce at the London factory received extremely poor wages - just 5 shillings for a 4-hour working week. More seriously, the white phosphorus used in match production caused severe health problems, including a condition that caused jaw bones to rot. While this substance had been banned in several other countries, British factories continued to use it.
The health hazards faced by match workers were so severe that the condition caused by white phosphorus exposure was known as "phossy jaw" - a gruesome disease that literally rotted workers' jaw bones. This highlights the extreme exploitation faced by unskilled workers before unionisation.
The role of Annie Besant: Socialist campaigner Annie Besant played a crucial role by publishing an article in 1888 that exposed the terrible working conditions faced by women at Bryant and May. When the company demanded that workers publicly deny these claims, most refused to do so.
Case Study: The Match Girls' Strike Process
Step 1: Annie Besant exposed working conditions through journalism
Step 2: Company demanded workers deny the claims publicly
Step 3: Workers refused and formed the Matchmakers Union
Step 4: Strike action lasted five weeks with sustained public support
Step 5: Employers agreed to meet workers' demands
This demonstrated a successful model for unskilled worker organisation that would be replicated elsewhere.
Strike action and success: With support from Annie Besant, the match girls formed the Matchmakers Union and went on strike. After five weeks of sustained action, their employers agreed to meet their demands. This victory was particularly significant because it showed that unskilled workers - and specifically women workers - could successfully organise and win improvements to their working conditions.
The match girls' strike was the first time unskilled workers had gained widespread public support, marking a turning point in public attitudes towards working-class organisation.
The dockers' strike, 1889
The London dock strike of 1889 became an even more significant demonstration of the power of new unionism, showing how large-scale organisation could bring one of the world's major ports to a standstill.
Working conditions in the docks: London's docks employed around 100,000 workers who competed daily for approximately 5,000 available jobs. Most were casual labourers who had to report each morning hoping for work, often receiving only an hour's employment at 4 pence per hour. This created desperate competition among workers and extremely unstable incomes.
The dock system was designed to maximise employer flexibility at workers' expense. By keeping a huge surplus of labour competing for few jobs, employers could keep wages low and working conditions poor. This made collective organisation both more difficult and more necessary.
The strike begins: On 14 August 1889, the dockers walked out demanding better pay (6 pence per hour, with 8 pence for overtime) and a minimum four-hour shift. London, being the world's largest port at the time, quickly felt the impact.
Escalation and solidarity: By 22 August, the strike had brought London's port to a complete standstill. Demonstrations and processions occurred daily, and other trades joined in sympathy strikes. By 27 August, an estimated 130,000 workers were on strike across London.
Case Study: The Scale of the Dockers' Strike
Timeline of escalation:
- 14 August: Strike begins with dock workers
- 22 August: Port comes to complete standstill
- 27 August: 130,000 workers across London on strike
- September: Victory after international support
The strike's success demonstrated the power of solidarity between different trades and the importance of international worker support.
International support and victory: The strike received remarkable support from Australian trade unions, who sent £30,000 to help sustain the strikers. This international solidarity proved crucial, as by the end of August the strikers were facing severe financial hardship. In September, the employers agreed to meet the dockers' demands.
Significance: The dockers' strike demonstrated that when different trades cooperated, they could force significant changes. This encouraged workers across Britain to join unions and showed the potential power of organised labour.
Impact and consequences of new unionism
The success of the match girls' and dockers' strikes had far-reaching consequences for British society and politics:
Massive growth in union membership: The strikes highlighted issues of urban poverty and gained widespread public sympathy. Between 1888 and 1891, trade union membership doubled across Britain. By 1899, there were more than two million union members, representing a dramatic increase in working-class organisation.
This growth was unprecedented in British labour history. The doubling of membership in just three years showed how quickly new unionism could mobilise previously unorganised workers when successful examples demonstrated what was possible.
Formation of general unions: New types of unions emerged, such as the Transport and General Workers' Union, which represented workers across multiple industries rather than focusing on specific crafts. This gave unions greater bargaining power and flexibility.
Political developments: The success of new unionism contributed directly to the formation of the Labour Party. The party first met in 1893, dedicated to representing worker interests in Parliament. Keir Hardie, a former miner, was elected as an independent Labour MP in 1892, demonstrating growing working-class political representation.
Legal backlash from employers: The success of new unionism prompted employers and the government to fight back through legal means. In 1896, picketing (standing outside workplaces to persuade others not to enter during strikes) was made illegal. More significantly, the 1901 Taff Vale judgement ruled that unions had to pay compensation for losses caused by strikes, which seriously weakened union effectiveness by making strike action financially dangerous.
Timeline of key events
- 1872: Secret ballot introduced, reducing employer control over worker votes
- 1888: Match girls' strike at Bryant and May factory succeeds after 5 weeks
- 14 August 1889: London dockers begin strike demanding better pay and conditions
- 22 August 1889: London port comes to complete standstill
- 27 August 1889: 130,000 workers on strike across London
- September 1889: Dockers' strike ends in victory for workers
- 1888-1891: Trade union membership doubles across Britain
- 1892: Keir Hardie elected as independent Labour MP
- 1893: Labour Party holds first meeting
- 1896: Picketing made illegal
- 1899: Trade union membership reaches over 2 million
- 1901: Taff Vale judgement weakens union power
Key Points to Remember:
- The 'new' trade unions represented unskilled workers rather than skilled craftsmen, marking a major shift in working-class organisation
- The match girls' strike (1888) and dockers' strike (1889) proved that even vulnerable, unskilled workers could successfully organise and win better conditions
- These strikes gained widespread public support and sympathy, helping to change attitudes towards working-class grievances
- New unionism led to a doubling of trade union membership between 1888-1891 and contributed to the formation of the Labour Party in 1893
- Employers and government responded with legal restrictions, including making picketing illegal (1896) and the Taff Vale judgement (1901) that made unions liable for strike damages