Crimes against authority (Edexcel GCSE History): Revision Notes
Crimes against authority (c1700-c1900)
During the 18th and 19th centuries, Britain experienced significant changes in how crimes against authority were defined and punished. This period saw some activities, like witchcraft, cease to be considered crimes, while new challenges to authority emerged as society transformed.
The decline of witchcraft as a crime
The prosecution of witchcraft underwent a dramatic transformation during this period. Following the English Civil War, the number of people prosecuted for witchcraft began to decline significantly. By 1736, all laws concerning witchcraft were officially repealed through the Witchcraft Act of 1736.
Under the new legislation, people who claimed to possess magical powers could still face legal consequences, but these were limited to fines or imprisonment rather than the death penalty that had previously been common. This change reflected broader shifts in British society and thinking.
The Witchcraft Act of 1736 marked a crucial turning point: witchcraft was no longer punishable by death, though claiming magical powers could still result in fines or imprisonment. This represented a fundamental shift from supernatural to rational approaches to justice.
Why witchcraft stopped being a crime
Three main factors contributed to the end of witchcraft prosecutions:
The Three Key Factors in Witchcraft's Decline:
Economic and social changes brought greater prosperity and political stability to Britain. As living conditions improved and society became more stable, people were less likely to seek supernatural explanations for their problems or blame witches for misfortunes.
Changing attitudes towards superstition also played a crucial role. While some people continued to believe in witches and the devil, others - particularly those with access to education - became increasingly sceptical of supernatural explanations. This growing rationalism reduced support for witchcraft prosecutions.
Scientific advancement further undermined belief in witchcraft. The Royal Society, established by Charles II, promoted scientific experiments and rational thinking. These scientific investigations provided natural explanations for phenomena that people had previously attributed to witchcraft, making supernatural explanations seem less credible.
The Tolpuddle Martyrs: a case study in challenging authority
The Tolpuddle Martyrs incident of 1834 demonstrates how authorities responded to new forms of perceived challenges to their power, particularly the emergence of organised labour movements.
Background and events
In 1834, six agricultural workers in the village of Tolpuddle, Dorset, formed what they called a "friendly society" - an early type of trade union. Their goal was simple: to protest against their low wages compared to those of other farm workers in the region.
The farm owners and government officials became alarmed, fearing they were losing control over their workforce. The authorities were particularly concerned about maintaining order and preventing the spread of worker organisation. The six men were arrested for taking secret oaths, which violated an old law that had originally been designed to prevent naval mutinies.
The harsh sentences were deliberately severe: all six workers received the maximum possible punishment of seven years' transportation to Australia. This was intended as a warning to other workers considering forming similar organisations.
At their trial, all six workers were found guilty and received the maximum possible sentence: seven years' transportation to Australia. This harsh punishment was intended to serve as a warning to other workers who might consider forming similar organisations.
Public reaction and consequences
The severity of the sentences sparked widespread outrage. News of the Tolpuddle Martyrs' fate spread rapidly throughout Britain, leading to mass protests involving over 200,000 people who signed petitions opposing the harsh punishment.
The transported Martyrs were George Loveless and his brother James, Thomas Standfield and his son John, James Hammett, and James Brine. Their case became a symbol of the struggle for workers' rights.
Initially, the Home Secretary decided to maintain the sentences, and the six men were transported to Australia as planned. However, the sustained public pressure eventually forced the government to reconsider. In 1836, the Tolpuddle Martyrs were pardoned and allowed to return home to Britain.
The power of public opinion in the Tolpuddle case was unprecedented for its time. The mass protests and petition campaigns demonstrated that ordinary citizens could influence government decisions through organised action, marking an important development in British democracy.
Significance of the Tolpuddle Martyrs case
This incident holds several important historical lessons about crimes against authority during this period:
Government control tactics: The case demonstrates how authorities used existing laws to criminalise people they viewed as threats to the established order, even when their activities might seem relatively harmless by today's standards.
Protection of employer interests: The harsh sentences showed how the government prioritised the interests of employers and landowners over the rights and welfare of ordinary workers.
Power of public opinion: The eventual pardoning of the Martyrs illustrated the growing influence that public opinion could have on government decisions, marking an important development in British democracy.
Inspiration for workers' rights: While the Martyrs' harsh treatment initially deterred some workers from organising, their ultimate vindication encouraged others to continue fighting for better working conditions and the right to form unions.
Case Study Analysis: The Tolpuddle Strategy
The government's approach followed a clear pattern:
- Identify the threat: Six farm workers forming a union
- Apply existing law: Use naval mutiny laws against secret oaths
- Maximum deterrence: Seven years' transportation to Australia
- Unexpected outcome: Public backlash forced government retreat
This case shows how authorities could misapply laws to target perceived threats, but also demonstrates the emerging power of public opinion in 19th-century Britain.
Timeline of key events
- 1736: Witchcraft Act passed, repealing all laws against witchcraft
- 1834: Six farm workers form trade union in Tolpuddle, Dorset
- 1834: Tolpuddle Martyrs arrested, tried, and sentenced to transportation
- 1834-1836: Mass protests and petition campaigns supporting the Martyrs
- 1836: Tolpuddle Martyrs pardoned and returned to Britain
Key Points to Remember:
- Witchcraft prosecutions declined after the Civil War due to economic stability, changing attitudes towards superstition, and scientific advancement through the Royal Society
- The Witchcraft Act of 1736 officially ended witchcraft as a capital crime, though claiming magical powers could still result in fines or imprisonment
- The Tolpuddle Martyrs case (1834) showed how authorities used harsh punishments to discourage workers from organising into trade unions
- Public opinion became increasingly powerful as demonstrated by the mass protests that eventually led to the Martyrs' pardon in 1836
- These changes reflected broader social transformation as Britain moved towards a more modern, rational, and democratic society