Androgyny (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Androgyny
What is androgyny?
Androgyny refers to the co-existence of both masculine and feminine characteristics within the same individual. Unlike traditional binary views of gender, androgynous people can display behaviours and traits typically associated with both genders.
As Dr June Singer noted in 1976, "Androgyny is not trying to manage the relationship between the opposites, it is simply flowing between them."
This concept challenges the idea that individuals must fit neatly into either masculine or feminine categories. Instead, androgynous individuals can demonstrate masculine traits (such as assertiveness) in some situations whilst showing feminine traits (such as nurturing behaviour) in others. They may also blend elements of both simultaneously.
Historical development and theoretical perspectives
Traditional views
Historically, psychology viewed individuals as either masculine or feminine, with the assumption that alignment with one's biological sex was healthier. Psychological tests reflected this binary thinking, making it impossible to score highly on both masculine and feminine traits simultaneously.
This binary approach prevented recognition of individuals who might naturally possess both masculine and feminine qualities, limiting our understanding of human personality diversity.
Key theoretical explanations
Olds (1981) proposed that androgyny represents a higher developmental stage that only some individuals reach. This suggests androgyny is an advanced form of psychological maturity.
Bem (1983) offered a cognitive explanation, arguing that androgynous individuals have a different cognitive style. They adopt behaviours independently of traditional gender concepts, making them gender aschematic (not influenced by sex-role stereotypes). This aligns with cognitive schema theory, which explains how gender stereotypes are maintained and transmitted culturally.
Orlofsky (1977) provided a behavioural explanation, suggesting androgyny develops through reinforcement. Individuals learn to acquire both masculine and feminine qualities that are appropriate for different situations, making androgyny more behavioural than cognitive in nature.
The Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
Development and structure
By the early 1970s, the binary view of gender was being challenged. Sandra Bem (1975) developed the androgynous hypothesis, viewing androgyny as a positive and desirable condition. To measure this, she created the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI).
The BSRI is a self-report measure consisting of 60 items rated on a seven-point scale:
- 20 items relate to stereotypically masculine characteristics
- 20 items relate to stereotypically feminine characteristics
- 20 items are gender-neutral filler items
Four categories
The BSRI classifies individuals into four categories based on their masculinity and femininity scores:
BSRI Classification System
- Masculine - high masculinity, low femininity
- Feminine - low masculinity, high femininity
- Androgynous - high masculinity, high femininity
- Undifferentiated - low masculinity, low femininity
Predictions
A key prediction from the BSRI is that androgyny serves as a better indicator of psychological well-being and mental health than having exclusively masculine or feminine qualities.
Research evidence
Classic research: Burchardt & Serbin (1982)
Research Study: Androgyny and Mental Health
Aim: To investigate whether androgyny was associated with positive mental health in both normal and clinical populations.
Participants: 106 female and 84 male undergraduates, plus 48 female and 48 male psychiatric inpatients.
Procedure: All participants completed the BSRI and the Faschinghauer Abbreviated Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory to classify them as masculine, feminine, androgynous or undifferentiated personalities.
Findings:
- Androgynous females showed lower levels of depression and social introversion compared to feminine females
- In college samples, they also scored lower on schizophrenia and mania scales than masculine females
- Among hospitalised males, androgynous and masculine participants were less deviant than feminine males and scored lower on depression
- Androgynous college males showed lower social introversion than feminine males
Evaluation:
- Strengths: The study included both normal and clinical populations, providing broader validity. The findings suggest sex-role conformity may relate differently to personality development in males and females.
- Weaknesses: Androgynous personalities scored well on mental health measures, but masculine types also scored well, questioning whether masculinity alone might be sufficient for positive mental health.
Additional research findings
Bem (1974) used the BSRI and found that 34% of males and 27% of females were androgynous, suggesting a sizeable minority of people are predominantly androgynous rather than strictly masculine or feminine.
Flaherty & Dusek (1980) discovered that androgynous individuals have higher self-esteem, better emotional well-being, and more adaptable behaviour, supporting the psychological benefits of androgyny.
Taylor & Hall (1982) found that masculinity was a better predictor of psychological well-being than androgyny in both males and females. This was supported by Taylor (1986), who reported that psychological well-being relates more strongly to masculinity than femininity on the BSRI.
Peters & Cantrell (1993) used the BSRI to demonstrate that androgynous females had the best quality of relationships, supporting the idea that androgyny represents a positive condition with higher interpersonal functioning.
Rose & Montemayor (1994) found that 25-30% of US high school students defined themselves as androgynous, with more girls than boys showing this pattern. Interestingly, more girls fell into the masculine category than boys into the feminine category, suggesting that sex roles may be becoming less rigid in older children.
Evaluation
Strengths
Research consistently demonstrates several advantages of androgyny:
- The BSRI demonstrates good test-retest reliability, producing consistent results when used on different occasions with the same participants
- Research consistently shows positive correlations between androgyny and good mental health, particularly regarding lower levels of depression
- Studies indicate that androgynous individuals have higher self-esteem and better emotional well-being compared to those with traditional gender roles
- The concept challenges restrictive gender stereotypes and promotes psychological flexibility
Key Limitation: Cultural and Temporal Validity
The BSRI was created from data generated by American students in the 1970s about desirable characteristics. The test may lack external validity for contemporary populations and people from other cultures.
Limitations
Several concerns have been raised about androgyny research:
- Questionable benefits: While Bem viewed androgyny as positive, androgynous individuals can exhibit negative masculine characteristics (such as over-aggression) and feminine characteristics (such as excessive timidity) in certain situations
- Developmental explanations lacking: Although Olds suggested androgyny represents a higher developmental stage, no explanation is provided for why this occurs only in some individuals or how such development occurs
- Masculinity bias: Research findings suggest that masculinity alone may be as beneficial as androgyny for psychological well-being. This may reflect masculine bias in Western cultures, where qualities like independence and competitiveness are more valued than cooperation and nurturing
- Oversimplification: Reducing masculinity and femininity to single scores may be overly simplistic. Contemporary approaches attempt to measure additional aspects of gender-related behaviour, such as interests and abilities, rather than just personality characteristics
Key Points to Remember:
- Androgyny involves having both masculine and feminine characteristics within the same individual
- The BSRI measures androgyny using four categories: masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated
- Research generally supports the psychological benefits of androgyny, including better mental health and relationship quality
- Key theorists offer different explanations: Olds (developmental), Bem (cognitive), and Orlofsky (behavioural)
- The concept challenges traditional binary gender roles but faces criticism regarding cultural bias and oversimplification