Urbanisation and Industrialisation (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
Urbanisation and Industrialisation
Understanding urbanisation and industrialisation
Industrialisation refers to the transformation from agriculture and small-scale cottage industry to large-scale manufacturing in factories. This process creates centralised workplaces that require people to relocate to where the work is available.
Urbanisation describes the increase in urban populations compared to rural populations. During periods of industrialisation, people migrate from rural areas to urban centres in search of employment opportunities.
These two processes typically occur together, as industrialisation drives the need for urban labour forces, whilst urbanisation provides the workforce necessary for industrial development. This interconnected relationship forms the foundation of modern economic development.
Modernisation theory and urbanisation
Modernisation theory positions urbanisation as essential to development. This perspective argues that city growth represents the success of Western development models and ideals. Cities are viewed as places that reject traditional goals and replace them with concepts of meritocracy, activism, and individualism.
Hoselitz (1964) supported this view, arguing that cities encourage people to work and contribute to the economy because urban society operates on achieved status rather than social position and meritocracy rather than social position.
Critical Limitations of Modernisation Theory:
Critics argue that this theory is ethnocentric, being based primarily on Western cities, Western capitalism, and Western ideals. Additionally, the theory remains unclear about how power, wealth, and development actually transfer from urban areas to rural areas - it simply assumes this occurs automatically.
Development as rural to urban transition
Some sociologists, particularly modernisation theorists, view development as the shift from rural life to urban life. This perspective suggests that development can be easily measured by calculating how urbanised a society has become.
Measuring Development Through Urbanisation:
This measurement approach focuses on counting the number of people living, working, and socialising within cities, then comparing this to the number of people in rural countryside areas. The higher the urban percentage, the more developed the society is considered to be.
Dual economy theory
Dual economy theory argues that urbanisation creates two distinctly different types of society within one country - rural society and urban society. These function as two separate economies with minimal connection between them.
The rural economy operates as localised and focused on subsistence living. In contrast, the urban economy is national and international, focused on economic growth and development.
Colonial Origins:
This theory stems from the idea that colonialism pushed progression in urban areas whilst neglecting rural areas. It proves useful for explaining why the needs and problems of urban areas differ substantially from those of rural areas.
Oversimplification Warning:
Critics point out that dual economy theory assumes rural economies are 'backwards', which oversimplifies the complexity and value of rural economic systems.
Dependency theory
Dependency theory challenges modernisation theory by arguing that the cities described by modernisation theorists simply do not exist. Dependency theorists contend that cities in LEDCs are not successful stories but are actually polarised between the 'haves' and the 'have nots', with colonialism to blame for this division.
According to this theory, urbanisation does not bring solutions to the developing world, but rather creates more problems such as inequality, urban poverty, and poor public health. The developing world lacks the infrastructure to cope with urbanisation - there are poor health care systems, limited access to clean water, and minimal social security.
Dependency theory suggests that only the parts of the city where capitalist elites live and work resemble the modernisation theory model of a city. These areas were designed under colonialism to house the colonial elite. Meanwhile, LEDC cities depend on trade with wealthy nations and serve rich nations rather than their own people.
Counter-Evidence:
However, dependency theory overlooks countries where urbanisation has brought economic benefits for local populations.
Approaches to industrialisation
Import substituting industrialisation (ISI)
ISI involves developing nations working to substitute home-grown alternatives for goods they used to import. Trade tariffs and taxes protect local manufacturers from foreign competition. States adopting ISI must be interventionist, protecting markets, patrolling borders, and overseeing the industrialisation process.
Advantages of ISI:
- Helps LEDCs become less dependent on the developed world
- Allows countries to target and plan their own economic development
- Enables investment of profits into further development
Disadvantages of ISI:
- Without foreign competition, local industries have less incentive to remain competitive
- Businesses can become inefficient and corrupt, or may fail entirely
- Protectionist policies can aggravate potential customers who may refuse to buy the developing country's goods
- Without real incentive to expand, some firms reduce wages to boost profits, potentially lowering national wage levels
Export orientated industrialisation (EOI)
EOI focuses on developing countries producing consumer goods for export. There is high demand for these goods in MEDCs, which have moved away from labour-intensive manufacturing. LEDCs benefit from cheaper labour costs and can sell their products at attractive prices.
Positive effects of EOI:
- Has worked successfully for countries like South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore
- These became Newly Industrialised Countries (NICs) in the 1970s and 80s
- Populations in these countries now enjoy improved standards of living and health
Negative effects of EOI:
- Manufactured goods can become too expensive for the domestic population to purchase
- Fierce competition in international markets can lead to wage cuts
- Focus on export markets may neglect domestic development needs
EOI Success Stories:
The transformation of South Korea, Hong Kong, Taiwan, and Singapore into NICs demonstrates that EOI can be highly effective when implemented with appropriate government policies and international market conditions.
Problems of rapid industrialisation
Rapid industrialisation can create massive social problems as workers migrate from countryside to cities. Newcomers often cannot afford standard city housing and construct temporary homes in shanty towns. These settlements lack basic city services such as proper water supply, healthcare, or policing, resulting in extremely poor living standards.
Webster (1984) described this phenomenon as over-urbanisation, caused by push and pull factors:
Understanding Migration Factors:
Push factors force people to leave the countryside:
- Poverty
- Loss of land
- Natural disasters
- War and civil conflict
Pull factors attract people to cities:
- Employment opportunities in new factories
- Better access to education
- Escape from familial, religious, or cultural constraints
The combination of these factors can lead to urban population growth that exceeds the city's capacity to provide adequate housing, services, and employment opportunities.
Key Points to Remember:
- Urbanisation and industrialisation typically occur together, with industrial development driving urban population growth
- Modernisation theory views urbanisation as essential for development, whilst dependency theory argues it creates more problems than solutions
- Dual economy theory suggests urban and rural areas function as separate economies with little connection
- ISI focuses on replacing imports with domestic production, whilst EOI emphasises producing goods for export
- Rapid industrialisation can lead to over-urbanisation, creating shanty towns and social problems when urban growth exceeds infrastructure capacity