War and Conflict (AQA A-Level Sociology): Revision Notes
War and Conflict
War represents one of the most devastating obstacles to global development, particularly affecting Less Economically Developed Countries (LEDCs). Understanding both the causes and consequences of armed conflict is essential for comprehending development challenges worldwide.
Causes of war and conflict
Ethnic divisions and political instability
Ethnic conflicts are struggles between different ethnic groups that often arise in developing nations. These conflicts are particularly common in Africa and can be traced back to colonial legacies. Colonial powers created artificial national boundaries without considering existing ethnic differences, forcing diverse groups with distinct cultures, languages, and traditions into single nations. This arbitrary division has contributed to ongoing tensions and conflicts.
Case Study: Rwandan Civil War
The conflict between the Hutus and Tutsis serves as a prominent example of ethnic conflict. This devastating war demonstrated how colonial boundaries that ignored ethnic divisions can lead to catastrophic consequences, resulting in genocide and long-lasting regional instability.
Such ethnic divisions can escalate into full-scale warfare when combined with other destabilising factors like economic inequality and political marginalisation.
Economic factors in conflict
Frances Stewart (2002) argues that while many conflicts appear to have ethnic, cultural, or religious dimensions, the underlying causes are predominantly economic. This perspective shifts our understanding from surface-level cultural explanations to deeper structural inequalities.
Economic triggers for conflict include:
- Political inequality between different groups
- Economic marginalisation of certain populations
- Social inequalities in access to resources and opportunities
- High unemployment, particularly among young people
Research consistently shows that economic factors are often the root cause of conflicts, even when they appear to be ethnic or religious disputes on the surface.
Resource-related conflicts
Paul Collier (2000) developed a conflict risk analysis that identifies several factors contributing to the likelihood of war. A key concept is the resource curse, where countries rich in valuable natural resources like oil, gold, or diamonds experience higher rates of conflict.
Rather than bringing stability and prosperity, these resources often fuel competition and violence as different groups fight for control. This paradox demonstrates how natural wealth can become a source of instability rather than development.
Political instability and intervention
Political instability creates conditions where conflicts can easily emerge and escalate. Additionally, developed countries sometimes engage in military intervention in LEDCs, often sending armed forces under the premise of providing aid or maintaining peace. However, these interventions can sometimes exacerbate existing tensions rather than resolve them.
New forms of warfare
Mary Kaldor (1999, 2007, 2012) introduced the concept of 'new wars', which differ from traditional state-versus-state conflicts. These modern conflicts represent a fundamental shift in the nature of warfare and have particularly devastating effects on civilian populations.
These modern wars are characteristically:
- Civil or ethnic conflicts rather than international wars
- Target civilians rather than just enemy soldiers
- Involve violence and human rights abuses against non-combatants
- Result from the breakdown of the nation state due to globalisation
- Cross national borders and are influenced by global arms trade, terrorism, and online extremist content
'New wars' are particularly destructive because they deliberately target civilian populations and operate across national boundaries, making traditional peacekeeping approaches less effective.
Effects of war on development
Government spending priorities
When governments allocate significant portions of their budgets to war and weapons, they have substantially less money available for development projects. This creates a direct trade-off between military spending and investments in healthcare, education, infrastructure, and poverty reduction programmes.
This represents a fundamental opportunity cost - every dollar spent on military equipment is a dollar not spent on schools, hospitals, or infrastructure that could benefit the population's long-term development.
Long-term development problems
Kaldor (2007) identified clear links between conflict and persistent development challenges. War creates a cycle of problems that can persist long after fighting ends.
War zones typically experience:
- Outbreaks of diseases, particularly in refugee camps where sanitation is poor
- Severe food shortages and malnutrition as agricultural production is disrupted
- Increased poverty as economic activities cease and populations are displaced
These effects compound each other, creating what development economists call a "poverty trap" where communities struggle to break free from cycles of underdevelopment.
Infrastructure destruction
Infrastructure, including transport networks and communication systems, suffers extensive damage during conflicts. This destruction severely hampers development because:
- Trade and commerce become difficult or impossible
- Emergency services cannot reach affected populations
- Reconstruction requires enormous financial resources that could otherwise fund development
Infrastructure destruction has multiplier effects - when roads, bridges, and communication networks are damaged, the entire economic system becomes less efficient, affecting development for years after conflict ends.
Educational disruption
Schools face multiple challenges during conflicts, creating long-term consequences for human capital development:
- School buildings may be damaged or destroyed by fighting
- Schools become too dangerous for children to attend safely
- Education and literacy rates decline, particularly affecting future development prospects
Case Study: Education in Afghanistan
In Afghanistan, ongoing conflict since 2001 has severely limited educational opportunities, especially for female students. The disruption to education affects an entire generation's capacity to contribute to national development, demonstrating how conflict's educational impacts extend far beyond the immediate war period.
The impact on education disproportionately affects girls in many conflict zones, as families often prioritise boys' education when resources are scarce and security is compromised.
Key Points to Remember:
- Economic factors are often the underlying cause of conflicts, even when they appear to be ethnic or religious disputes
- The resource curse shows how valuable natural resources can fuel conflict rather than promote development
- 'New wars' primarily target civilians and cross national boundaries, making them particularly destructive
- War creates a development trade-off as governments spend money on weapons instead of healthcare, education, and infrastructure
- Long-term effects of conflict include disease outbreaks, food shortages, damaged infrastructure, and reduced educational opportunities that can hold back development for generations