The Coup, 1991 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Coup, 1991
Background to the coup
By 1991, Gorbachev had developed a new Union Treaty designed to reform the relationship between the Soviet central government and the individual republics. This treaty was intended to create a Union of Sovereign States, giving republics greater autonomy whilst maintaining a federal structure. However, this proposal faced fierce opposition from hardliners within the Communist Party who believed it granted too much power to the republics and threatened the unity of the Soviet Union.
Gorbachev's reforms had created a delicate balance between maintaining Soviet unity and granting republics more freedom. The Union Treaty represented his attempt to preserve the USSR whilst responding to demands for greater autonomy, but it satisfied neither hardline communists nor those seeking full independence.
Gorbachev's decision to take a holiday immediately before the planned signing of this new treaty created a critical opportunity for his opponents. His absence from Moscow meant he was away from the centre of government and unable to effectively respond to any challenge to his authority.
The events of the coup (18–21 August 1991)
The launch of the coup (18 August)
On 18 August 1991, eight senior Communists announced the formation of an Emergency Committee which claimed it would replace Gorbachev's government. The leadership of this committee included:
- Gorbachev's own deputy
- The head of the army
- The head of the KGB (Soviet security service)
The plotters announced that Gorbachev had supposedly resigned due to poor health. However, this was false—Gorbachev refused to resign and remained determined to retain his position.
The committee's stated aims
The Emergency Committee declared their objectives were to:
- Prevent the break-up of the Soviet Union
- Restore law and order across the country
Significantly, the plotters recognised that Communism had become deeply unpopular with the Soviet people. As a result, they deliberately avoided seizing power explicitly in the name of the Communist Party, attempting instead to present themselves as defenders of state unity and stability.
Resistance to the coup
Boris Yeltsin, the President of Russia, immediately emerged as the leader of resistance to the coup. When army units were dispatched to the White House (the Russian parliament building) with orders to arrest him, the soldiers refused to obey. This military defiance proved crucial to the coup's failure.
Yeltsin called for a general strike to resist the Emergency Committee and demanded Gorbachev's immediate return to power. His strategic decision to demand Gorbachev's restoration, rather than immediately claiming power himself, helped him maintain legitimacy and avoid appearing self-serving.
The collapse of the coup (21 August)
Without the support of the army, the Emergency Committee could not maintain control. The coup collapsed on 21 August 1991, having lasted only three days.
Consequences of the coup
Gorbachev's authority destroyed
Although Gorbachev was reinstated as President, his authority never recovered. His first statement upon returning to Moscow demonstrated how out of touch he had become with public opinion. He declared that:
- He still had faith in the Communist Party
- He remained committed to renewing the Party
- He wanted the Party to continue playing a key role in the Soviet Union's future
These statements proved disastrous for Gorbachev's credibility. Due to glasnost (openness), the Soviet public had already lost faith in the Party. The coup itself had further discredited the Party by revealing that senior Party figures were willing to reverse democratisation and return to authoritarian rule. Gorbachev's continued support for the Party showed he no longer represented the aspirations of most Soviet citizens.
The Communist Party discredited
The Party, the army and the KGB all suffered severe damage to their reputations because of their involvement in the coup attempt. This discrediting of the traditional pillars of Soviet power accelerated the collapse of the entire system.
On 23 August, just two days after the coup's failure, Yeltsin suspended the Communist Party in Russia. Faced with little popular opposition to this move, Yeltsin went further and completely banned the Communist Party on 6 November 1991.
Yeltsin's rise to dominance
In contrast to Gorbachev's weakening position, Yeltsin emerged from the coup with greatly enhanced authority. He was now seen as the defender of democracy and his courageous actions during the crisis won him even greater public support. His appeal to Russian patriotism proved particularly effective—he positioned the coup as anti-Russian because the Emergency Committee wanted to force Russia back into the old Soviet Union structure.
The break-up of the Soviet Union accelerates
Fear that the Emergency Committee might successfully re-establish a communist dictatorship prompted several republics to declare independence immediately:
- Ukraine, Moldova, Azerbaijan and Kyrgyzstan all declared independence by the end of August
- Armenia followed after holding a referendum in early September
- Gorbachev was forced to recognise the independence of the Baltic states (Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania)
The coup completely destroyed Gorbachev's treaty establishing a Union of Sovereign States. Despite working hard throughout October and November, Gorbachev could not revive this treaty.
Ukrainian independence proves decisive
On 1 December 1991, the people of Ukraine voted in a referendum on independence from the Soviet Union. 90 per cent voted in favour of independence. This decision proved critical because Ukraine had the second largest population of any Soviet republic, containing almost 20 per cent of the total Soviet population. The Ukrainian decision to leave effectively ended any realistic possibility of preserving the Soviet Union.
Ukraine's referendum was the decisive blow to the Soviet Union. With the second-largest population and significant economic resources, Ukraine's departure made the continuation of the USSR impossible. The overwhelming 90% vote demonstrated that independence was not just a decision by political elites but reflected the will of the Ukrainian people.
Creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States
In December 1991, Yeltsin and the leaders of Belarus and Ukraine signed the Minsk Agreement, which declared that the Soviet Union had been replaced by the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). On 21 December 1991, eleven of the fifteen former Soviet republics joined the CIS.
The creation of the CIS effectively destroyed the Soviet Union. From 21 December onwards, Gorbachev was technically the President of a state that no longer existed. He formally resigned as President of the Soviet Union on 25 December 1991 and declared that the Soviet Union would officially cease to exist on 31 December 1991.
Historical interpretations of the coup's significance
Most historians agree that the August coup represented a crucial turning point in the fall of the Soviet Union, though they emphasise different aspects of its significance.
Peter Kenez's interpretation
Historian Peter Kenez argues that the coup was significant because it exposed the bankruptcy and weakness of communist hardliners. He emphasises several key points:
Kenez's Key Arguments:
- The conspirators were "ludicrously inept", lacking both charisma and political judgement
- Beyond their dislike of Gorbachev's reforms and desire to return to the old Soviet order, they had no coherent political programme
- Crucially, they failed to take serious measures to disarm the opposition
- Their disastrous press conference, where they appeared "helpless, drunken, and fearful", demonstrated the bankruptcy of the old order
Kenez argues that the coup accomplished the opposite of what the plotters intended—it proved there was no force behind them and that the old Soviet order could not be reconstructed. Although the Soviet regime survived for four more months after the coup's failure, Kenez considers this "ill-considered conspiracy" to be the real end of the Soviet era.
Martin McCauley's interpretation
Historian Martin McCauley, by contrast, emphasises how the coup strengthened Yeltsin and Russian nationalism at the expense of Gorbachev and the Communist Party. He highlights:
McCauley's Key Arguments:
- The coup might have succeeded if Yeltsin and his supporters had been arrested on the first day, but the KGB failed to act decisively
- Yeltsin proved himself a "brilliant populist" who knew how to mobilise public passions
- His strategic demand for Gorbachev's return (rather than immediately claiming power himself) helped him maintain constitutional legitimacy
- Yeltsin's appeal to Russian patriotism proved particularly effective—he positioned the coup as anti-Russian because it sought to force Russia back into the old Soviet Union
- This message resonated strongly with the intelligentsia, who feared their lives would be ruined if the Emergency Committee secured power
- Yeltsin's message that "we Russians can do it, if we are permitted to" offered hope for Russian regeneration
The coup's role in accelerating existing trends
Whilst the coup led to fundamental changes, it is important to recognise that it accelerated trends already visible in mid-1991 rather than creating entirely new developments. The coup finally destroyed the authority of three key forces holding the Soviet Union together:
- Gorbachev's personal authority
- The Communist Party
- The army
However, even before the coup, warning signs were evident:
- Gorbachev's authority was already declining whilst Yeltsin's was increasing
- At least six republics showed clear signs of planning to leave the Union
- The Communist Party's authority was declining sharply
The coup dramatically hastened these existing processes, pushing them past the point of no return. Rather than creating new problems, the coup acted as a catalyst that transformed gradual decline into rapid collapse.
The role of nationalism in the Soviet collapse
Nationalism played a crucial role in the demise of the Soviet Union. Several factors combined to strengthen nationalist movements:
Weakening of Soviet authority:
- The Soviet Government's economic failures became increasingly obvious
- Revelations about political and environmental crimes committed by Soviet authorities damaged the government's legitimacy
- Gorbachev's refusal to seek a democratic mandate undermined his authority
Strengthening of local leaders:
- Local leaders could present themselves as defenders of natural local traditions against the tyranny of central control
- Leaders like Yeltsin had genuine democratic authority because they had been elected by the people
- This gave them more respect and power than Gorbachev, who was associated with Soviet failures and crimes
The coup as the final blow:
Gorbachev's attempts to preserve most of the Union through the Union Treaty were destroyed by the communist hardliners who launched the coup. The coup finally destroyed the authority of the Soviet Union itself and ended Gorbachev's attempts to restrain growing nationalism across the Soviet republics.
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
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The August coup (18–21 August 1991) was launched by hardliners opposed to Gorbachev's new Union Treaty but collapsed within three days when the army refused to support it
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The coup had catastrophic consequences for Gorbachev and the Communist Party—Gorbachev's authority never recovered, and Yeltsin banned the Party by November 1991
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Yeltsin emerged as the clear winner, using Russian nationalism and his defence of democracy to build overwhelming popular support
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The coup triggered rapid declarations of independence by multiple republics, with Ukraine's referendum (1 December—90% for independence) proving decisive
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The Commonwealth of Independent States replaced the Soviet Union on 21 December 1991, with the USSR formally ceasing to exist on 31 December 1991
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Historians debate whether the coup exposed hardliners' weakness (Kenez) or strengthened Yeltsin and Russian nationalism (McCauley), but agree it was the key turning point in the Soviet collapse