Attitudes and adaptations (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
Attitudes and adaptations
Introduction
During America's westward expansion, the nation faced what many called the "Indian problem" - how to deal with Plains Indian tribes who occupied lands that white settlers wanted. This created a major divide in American society, with people holding dramatically different views on how the government should handle relations with Native American peoples. Understanding these competing attitudes helps explain the policies and conflicts that shaped this period.
The term "Indian problem" reflects the perspective of white Americans at the time, who viewed Native American presence as an obstacle to westward expansion rather than recognising the legitimate rights of indigenous peoples to their ancestral lands.
Two opposing viewpoints
The exterminators
White Americans who supported extermination believed the government should use military force to completely eliminate Plains Indian resistance. These individuals felt that Native Americans were obstacles to progress and civilisation. They argued that Plains Indians were inherently violent and could never be trusted to coexist peacefully with white settlers.
The extermination viewpoint gained significant support, especially after incidents where Plains Indians attacked white settlements or military forces. Supporters of this approach became increasingly angry during the Indian Wars of 1875-85, particularly after events like the Battle of the Little Big Horn in 1876. They believed that only through complete military victory could the West be made safe for white settlement and economic development.
The humanitarians
In contrast, humanitarian Americans opposed using violence against Plains Indians. They believed that fighting would only make conflicts worse and cause Plains Indians to resist even more fiercely. Humanitarians argued for peaceful solutions, preferring to move Native Americans onto reservations where they could be protected and gradually taught to live like white Americans.
Humanitarians often accused military leaders like Lieutenant Colonel Custer and General Sherman of deliberately provoking Plains Indians into violent conflicts. They believed these military men wanted war for personal glory and career advancement, rather than seeking peaceful solutions.
How Plains Indians adapted to survive
Faced with overwhelming pressure from the American government and military, most Plains Indian tribes realised they could not defeat the United States in long-term warfare. Many tribal leaders made the difficult decision to adapt to changing circumstances in order to ensure their people's survival.
Treaty agreements
Plains Indian leaders often agreed to harsh treaty conditions in exchange for essential supplies their people desperately needed. Living conditions on reservations were frequently terrible, with inadequate food supplies and rampant disease.
Treaty Example: Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868
Chiefs like Red Cloud of the Sioux signed the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which required them to:
- Accept reservation boundaries
- Send their children to boarding schools
- Allow their children to be taught to abandon Native American culture
- Adopt white American customs and practices
These treaties represented painful compromises where tribal leaders gave up their traditional way of life and independence in hopes of securing basic survival for their communities.
The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871
This crucial piece of legislation fundamentally changed the relationship between the United States government and Native American tribes. The Act declared that Indian nations and tribes were no longer considered independent powers with whom the government needed to negotiate treaties.
Key Impact of the 1871 Act:
The Indian Appropriations Act brought all Indian affairs under direct government control, treating Native Americans as wards of the state rather than members of sovereign nations. This legal change eliminated the treaty-making process and gave the federal government unlimited authority over Native American peoples and their lands.
General William T Sherman's role
General William T Sherman played a significant part in developing harsh policies towards Plains Indians. As a Civil War leader stationed in the West after 1865, Sherman became known for his extreme approach to dealing with Native American resistance. He participated in negotiating the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, but used these negotiations as opportunities to push for increasingly severe treatment of Plains Indian tribes.
Sherman represented the military's growing influence over Indian policy, bringing Civil War tactics and attitudes to conflicts with Native Americans. His approach emphasised total victory and complete submission rather than compromise or coexistence.
The buffalo extermination strategy
The American government developed a deliberate strategy to destroy the Plains Indians' way of life by eliminating the buffalo herds they depended upon. Buffalo provided Plains Indians with food, clothing, shelter materials, and trade goods - essentially everything needed for survival on the Great Plains.
Millions of buffalo were systematically killed, with their bones often used for fertiliser. This wasn't random hunting but a calculated policy designed to force Plains Indians onto reservations by destroying their ability to live independently.
The Devastating Impact:
By 1890, buffalo herds that once numbered in millions had been reduced to just a few hundred animals scattered across the Plains. This strategy proved devastatingly effective, as Plains Indians could no longer maintain their traditional lifestyle and had little choice but to accept reservation life and government dependency.
Timeline of key events
Major Events in Plains Indian Relations:
- 1868 - Fort Laramie Treaty signed, establishing reservations
- 1871 - Indian Appropriations Act passed, ending treaty-making
- 1875-1885 - Major Indian Wars period
- 1876 - Battle of Little Big Horn
- 1890 - Buffalo herds nearly extinct on the Plains
Remember!
Key Points to Remember:
- American society was deeply divided between those wanting to exterminate Plains Indians and those preferring peaceful solutions
- Plains Indians adapted to survival by accepting harsh treaty terms and reservation life, giving up their independence
- The Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 legally ended Native American sovereignty and tribal independence
- General Sherman and other Civil War veterans brought military solutions to Indian relations
- Buffalo extermination was a deliberate government strategy to force Plains Indians onto reservations by destroying their traditional way of life