Closing the Frontier (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
Closing the frontier
The end of westward expansion
By 1890, America's westward expansion had reached its conclusion. The vast territories that were once known as the Great American Desert had been transformed by railroads, towns, and settlements. Most significantly, the Plains Indians had been defeated in their struggle to maintain control over their ancestral lands, and the American government officially announced that the frontier no longer existed. This declaration meant that land which had previously been Native American territory was now available for all American settlers to claim and develop.
The official closure of the frontier in 1890 marked the end of over a century of westward expansion that had defined American growth since independence. This moment represented a fundamental shift in American identity and policy.
Timeline of major events
The closing of the frontier involved several crucial developments that unfolded over just 14 years:
- 1876 - Battle of the Little Big Horn: This significant conflict marked a temporary victory for Plains Indians but ultimately hardened American attitudes towards Native American resistance
- 1887 - Dawes Act: Legislation that broke up tribal lands and forced individual land ownership on Native Americans
- 1889 - Oklahoma Land Rush: The government opened 2 million acres of former Native American territory to white settlers
- 1890 - Wounded Knee massacre and official frontier closure: The final major conflict occurred, and the government declared the frontier closed
This remarkably short timespan of just 14 years saw the complete transformation of the American West and the end of organised Native American resistance to westward expansion.
The Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889
The Oklahoma Land Rush perfectly demonstrated how quickly American settlement could transform former Native American territory. In April 1889, the federal government made available approximately 2 million acres of land that had previously been designated for Plains Indians. The process was dramatic and swift - at noon, a cannon was fired at a nearby fort, signalling that settlers could race to claim their plots of land. The competition was so intense that by evening, virtually all available land had been claimed by new settlers. Within just one year, the entire frontier in that region was considered closed, with almost no unclaimed territory remaining.
The Speed of Settlement: Oklahoma Land Rush
- Morning: 2 million acres of unclaimed territory
- Noon: Cannon fires, thousands of settlers race to claim land
- Evening: Virtually all available land claimed by new settlers
- Within one year: Entire region considered settled, frontier officially closed
This dramatic transformation from unclaimed territory to settled land in less than 24 hours exemplified the rapid pace of American westward expansion.
Factors that led to Plains Indians' defeat
Military and technological advantages
The American government possessed significant advantages that Plains Indians could not match. Federal authorities had access to substantial financial resources and the latest military technology, including advanced weapons and communication systems. In contrast, Plains Indians often relied on older weapons and traditional fighting methods that proved insufficient against modern American military tactics.
The railroad network's impact
The construction of railroads across the western territories fundamentally changed the balance of power. These transportation links brought enormous numbers of settlers to areas that had previously been difficult to reach and unsuitable for large-scale settlement. The railroads transformed regions that Plains Indians had considered too challenging for permanent non-Native habitation into accessible areas ready for development.
The transcontinental railroad, completed in 1869, was particularly crucial in facilitating rapid settlement and military movement across the West, making it nearly impossible for Native American tribes to maintain control over their traditional territories.
Post-Civil War military focus
The conclusion of the Civil War in 1865 meant that American military attention shifted towards western expansion. Although some Plains Indian tribes had supported the Confederacy during the conflict, this association made them unpopular with the victorious Union government. The available military resources that had been devoted to the civil conflict were now redirected towards controlling Native American resistance in the West.
Cultural conflicts and Manifest Destiny
Many white Americans genuinely believed in the concept of Manifest Destiny - the idea that they were naturally superior to Native Americans and destined to control the entire continent. This belief system led to the conviction that Plains Indians should abandon their traditional territories and live like white Americans in settled communities. These cultural attitudes often resulted in violent confrontations, including tragic events like the massacres at Sand Creek and Wounded Knee, which some historians classify as genocide due to the deliberate targeting of Native American populations.
The belief in Manifest Destiny wasn't just a political concept—it was a deeply held cultural conviction that many Americans used to justify the displacement and destruction of Native American societies. This ideological framework made peaceful coexistence nearly impossible.
The reservation system and assimilation policies
The American government and Plains Indians had negotiated various agreements, including the Fort Laramie Treaties and the Medicine Lodge Treaties, but these were frequently violated by both parties. The reservation system that emerged from these negotiations proved devastating to Native American ways of life, as it confined traditionally nomadic peoples to fixed territories.
The Dawes Act of 1887 represented the final phase of this policy, making it completely impossible for Plains Indians to maintain their traditional lifestyle. Many Native Americans lacked the knowledge and resources needed to succeed in the American-style agricultural economy that was imposed upon them. The combination of starvation and violence became widespread as communities struggled to adapt to these dramatic changes.
The Dawes Act was particularly destructive because it deliberately broke up tribal lands and forced individual land ownership on people whose entire cultural and economic system was based on communal land use. This policy was designed to destroy Native American culture and force assimilation into white American society.
The harsh realities of frontier life
It's crucial to understand that life on the Plains was extremely challenging for everyone involved. The difficult environmental conditions meant that both Native Americans and white settlers faced serious struggles for survival. As time progressed and conflicts intensified, attitudes on all sides became increasingly hostile and uncompromising, contributing to the tragic outcomes that characterised this period.
While it's important to understand the broader context of frontier hardships, this should not diminish the recognition that Native Americans faced systematic displacement, cultural destruction, and violence that went far beyond the general challenges of frontier life.
The harsh realities of frontier life
Key Points to Remember:
- 1890 marked the official end of the American frontier, as the government declared all territory settled
- The Oklahoma Land Rush of 1889 demonstrated the speed of American settlement, with 2 million acres claimed in a single day
- Multiple factors combined to defeat the Plains Indians: superior American military technology, extensive railroad networks, post-Civil War military focus, and cultural beliefs about Manifest Destiny
- The reservation system and Dawes Act destroyed traditional Native American ways of life, forcing individual land ownership and agricultural lifestyles on traditionally nomadic peoples
- The period from 1876-1890 saw the final major conflicts, from the Battle of Little Big Horn through the Wounded Knee massacre, effectively ending organised Native American resistance to westward expansion