Wounded Knee, 1890 (AQA GCSE History): Revision Notes
Wounded Knee, 1890
Background and context
Although organised Native American resistance had largely ended by 1877, the harassment and mistreatment of the Sioux people continued for over a decade. The American military maintained pressure on Native American communities, leading to mounting tensions that would eventually explode into violence at Wounded Knee Creek in December 1890.
This final confrontation represented not just a tragic massacre, but the symbolic end of the American Indian frontier and Native American resistance to westward expansion.
The period between 1877 and 1890 was marked by increasing restrictions on Native American communities, with the U.S. government implementing policies designed to force assimilation and break down traditional tribal structures.
The Ghost Dance movement
Origins and beliefs
In 1889, a spiritual movement began that would have profound consequences for Plains Indian communities. A Paiute Indian named Wovoka experienced what he claimed was a divine vision. According to Wovoka's teachings, the Plains Indians had angered the Great Spirit, which explained their defeats and the loss of their traditional way of life.
Wovoka's message offered hope to desperate communities. He proclaimed that if Native Americans performed the sacred Ghost Dance and rejected white American customs and ways of life, the Great Spirit would reward them by bringing back to life all deceased Plains Indians. This spiritual resurrection would help them defeat white settlers and restore their traditional lifestyle.
The Ghost Dance was a peaceful religious ceremony that involved participants dancing in a circle while wearing special shirts they believed would protect them from harm. The movement represented a form of spiritual resistance and hope for Native American communities facing cultural extinction.
Government concerns
The Ghost Dance movement spread rapidly across reservations, causing deep concern among American government officials. President Harrison became so worried about this religious revival that he sent military forces to the reservations with orders to suppress the Ghost Dance movement entirely. The government viewed this spiritual practice as a potential catalyst for renewed Native American resistance.
The U.S. government's decision to suppress a peaceful religious movement demonstrated their fundamental misunderstanding of Native American spirituality and their fear of any form of organised Native American activity, even when it was non-violent in nature.
The events leading to massacre
Death of Sitting Bull (December 15, 1890)
The situation escalated dramatically when Indian Reservation Police attempted to arrest Chief Sitting Bull on December 15, 1890. The authorities mistakenly believed he was a Ghost Dancer planning to lead a rebellion against the government. When Sitting Bull refused to surrender peacefully, a violent struggle broke out during which the famous chief was shot and killed.
Sitting Bull's death enraged his followers, who sought refuge with another Lakota Sioux Chief named Big Foot. This group of Native Americans began moving towards the Pine Ridge Reservation, but their journey would end in tragedy.
The arrest and killing of Sitting Bull was based on false assumptions. He was not actually a leader of the Ghost Dance movement, and his death was the result of government paranoia rather than any real threat he posed.
The confrontation at Wounded Knee Creek (December 29, 1890)
On December 29, 1890, the American army's 7th Cavalry unit caught up with Big Foot and the followers of Sitting Bull at Wounded Knee Creek. The soldiers demanded that the Native Americans surrender immediately and began the process of disarming them.
During this tense disarmament process, tension reached a breaking point and a fight erupted between a Plains Indian and an American soldier. This single altercation triggered a massacre that would become one of the darkest moments in American history.
The massacre
The 7th Cavalry responded to the initial conflict with overwhelming and indiscriminate violence. In the slaughter that followed, between 150 and 300 Plains Indians were killed, with approximately half of the victims being women and children. In contrast, only around 25 American soldiers lost their lives during the confrontation.
The disparity in casualties clearly demonstrates that this was not a battle between equal forces, but rather a one-sided massacre of largely defenceless people, including many non-combatants.
The massive disparity in casualties - with Native American deaths outnumbering soldier deaths by more than 6 to 1 - clearly indicates this was not a fair fight but a systematic slaughter of largely unarmed civilians, including women and children.
Reactions and aftermath
Media portrayal
The events at Wounded Knee were immediately misrepresented by newspapers and military officials. Rather than being reported as a massacre of civilians, the incident was portrayed as a legitimate battle against hostile Native Americans. The soldiers who participated in the killing were praised for their actions, while the Plains Indians were condemned for supposedly attacking American forces.
The media coverage of Wounded Knee reflects the broader pattern of 19th-century American journalism, which often portrayed Native Americans through racist stereotypes and rarely questioned military accounts of events on the frontier.
Public opinion
The massacre reinforced existing American public opinion that viewed Plains Indians as "wild savages" who posed a constant threat to white settlers. Many Americans believed that Native Americans who could not be controlled or assimilated should be eliminated entirely. This racist attitude helped justify the violence and prevented widespread condemnation of the massacre.
Historical significance
Some historians have suggested that the 7th Cavalry's actions at Wounded Knee were motivated partly by a desire for revenge. This same military unit had suffered a devastating defeat at the Battle of Little Big Horn in 1876, and the massacre may have represented an attempt to restore their reputation and honour.
Most importantly, after the massacre at Wounded Knee, the American government officially announced that the Indian Frontier was closed. This declaration marked the symbolic end of the westward expansion period and the final defeat of organised Native American resistance.
The closure of the Indian Frontier in 1890 officially marked the end of the period of westward expansion that had defined much of 19th-century American history. This milestone came at an enormous cost to Native American peoples and cultures.
Timeline of key events
- 1889: Ghost Dance movement begins under Wovoka's leadership
- December 15, 1890: Sitting Bull killed by Indian Reservation Police
- December 29, 1890: Massacre at Wounded Knee Creek - 150-300 Native Americans killed
- 1890: American government declares the Indian Frontier closed
Key Points to Remember:
- Wounded Knee (1890) marked the final major confrontation between Native Americans and the U.S. government, ending organised resistance
- The Ghost Dance movement was a spiritual revival that promised the return of traditional Native American life, causing government alarm
- Sitting Bull's death on December 15, 1890, escalated tensions and led directly to the Wounded Knee confrontation
- The massacre resulted in 150-300 Native American deaths (mostly women and children) compared to only 25 soldier casualties
- The event symbolised the closure of the Indian Frontier and completed America's westward expansion at the cost of Native American lives and culture