The Western Front and the Somme, 1916 (Edexcel GCSE History): Revision Notes

The Western Front and the Somme, 1916

Introduction

The Battle of the Somme in 1916 represented a major British attempt to break through the deadlock that had developed on the Western Front. This offensive revealed the devastating human cost of modern industrial warfare and demonstrated the challenges of breaking well-established defensive positions during the First World War.

The Western Front by 1915

By 1915, the war on the Western Front had transformed into a static conflict characterised by extensive defensive systems. Both Allied and German forces had constructed elaborate trench networks spanning approximately 600 kilometres, stretching from Belgium all the way to Switzerland. This created a deadly stalemate where neither side could achieve a decisive breakthrough.

The trench systems were far more complex than simple ditches in the ground. They consisted of multiple defensive lines including frontline trenches where soldiers faced the enemy, support trenches positioned behind the front lines, and reserve trenches further back. These were all connected by communication trenches that allowed troops and supplies to move safely between positions. Underground dugouts provided shelter from artillery bombardment, while the infamous "No Man's Land" separated opposing forces.

The Somme offensive strategy

The British developed a six-stage plan to break through German defences at the Somme:

1. Aerial reconnaissance: The Royal Flying Corps shot down German observation balloons to prevent enemy intelligence gathering and ensure the element of surprise
2. Chemical warfare: Gas attacks were launched at 40 different locations along the front to weaken German defences
3. Artillery preparation: A week-long heavy artillery bombardment was designed to destroy German fortifications and clear barbed wire
4. Infantry support: A "creeping" barrage of artillery fire was planned to move ahead of advancing British troops, clearing the way for the attack
5. The main assault: Approximately 120,000 infantry soldiers would go "over the top" and advance towards German trenches
6. Breakthrough: The plan anticipated rapid progress through weakened German defences

The reality of the offensive

The first day of the Somme, July 1, 1916, became one of the bloodiest days in British military history. Despite the elaborate planning, 20,000 British infantry were killed and 40,000 were wounded or captured on that single day. The offensive continued for five months with little strategic progress, demonstrating the difficulty of breaking through established defensive positions.

Reasons for the limited success

Several factors contributed to the failure of the Somme offensive:

Loss of surprise: The week-long artillery barrage alerted German forces that a major attack was coming, allowing them to prepare their defences and bring up reinforcements.

Strong German defenses: The German trench system proved remarkably resilient, featuring 12 parallel lines of trenches connected by deep dugouts that provided protection from artillery. These underground shelters included comfortable tunnels where troops could wait out bombardments.

Defensive firepower: German positions were equipped with rifles, machine guns, and artillery that could cut down advancing soldiers as they crossed No Man's Land.

Inexperienced troops: Many British infantry were new volunteers who lacked proper training and combat experience, making them vulnerable to seasoned German defenders.

Artillery failures: The British artillery barrage failed to destroy German defences in No Man's Land, leaving barbed wire obstacles intact and dugouts functional.

Poor tank deployment: Although tanks were used for the first time, they were spread over such a wide area that their impact was limited and ineffective.

Life in the trenches

Trench warfare created extremely harsh living conditions for soldiers on both sides. Daily routines included mundane but essential tasks such as sentry duty and weapon maintenance. Soldiers lived in underground dugouts when not on the front lines, but these were often damp and uncomfortable.

The constant threat of enemy fire meant that movement during daylight hours was extremely dangerous. Wet conditions led to medical problems like trench foot, while contaminated water and poor sanitation caused widespread disease. Rats were a constant problem, and lice infestations were common, leading to "trench fever."

The psychological impact was severe, with continuous bombardment causing little sleep and contributing to what was then called "shell shock" - symptoms including uncontrollable crying, shaking, and paralysis that we now understand as post-traumatic stress disorder.

General Haig's leadership

General Douglas Haig played a controversial role in the Somme campaign. Under pressure from the government to achieve results and recapture territory lost earlier in the war, Haig was determined to pin down German troops at the Somme to prevent them from reinforcing other fronts.

Haig believed that heavy casualties would damage Germany more than the Allies, calculating that Britain could better sustain losses in a war of attrition. However, his decision to continue the offensive after the disastrous first day proved highly controversial. He persisted with similar tactics even after early infantry attacks had proven unsuccessful, and he often ignored advice from other generals who suggested changes to his approach. Haig also made poor use of new technologies and weapons that might have improved British chances of success.

Timeline of key events

• 1915: Trench networks established across 600km of the Western Front
• July 1, 1916: First day of the Battle of the Somme - 20,000 British killed, 40,000 wounded
• July-November 1916: Battle continues for five months with limited territorial gains
• November 1916: Offensive officially ends with minimal strategic success

Key Points to Remember