Summary (Leaving Cert Classical Studies): Revision Notes
Summary
Sophocles' Philoctetes tells the story of a wounded Greek warrior abandoned on a deserted island, whose magical bow becomes essential for winning the Trojan War. The play explores themes of honour versus pragmatism, the morality of deception, and the power of divine intervention.
Setting and background
The tragedy unfolds on Lemnos, a barren island where Philoctetes has lived in isolation for nearly ten years. He was abandoned there by his fellow Greeks because of a putrid, incurable wound that made his presence unbearable. However, prophecy has revealed that Troy cannot fall without Philoctetes and his bow, which originally belonged to the hero Heracles.
The backdrop of Lemnos serves as more than just a setting—it represents the physical and emotional isolation that defines Philoctetes' character. The prophecy demanding his return creates the dramatic tension that drives the entire plot, forcing the Greeks to confront the moral consequences of their earlier abandonment.
Prologue - The deceptive plan
The play opens with Odysseus and young Neoptolemus arriving on Lemnos. Odysseus explains the backstory: Philoctetes was left behind due to his foul-smelling wound, but prophecy now demands his return to ensure Troy's defeat. Odysseus instructs Neoptolemus to deceive Philoctetes and steal his precious bow, as the wounded hero despises the Greek leaders who abandoned him.
Neoptolemus initially resists this dishonest approach, preferring direct action. However, Odysseus pressures him, arguing that victory justifies any means. This establishes the central moral conflict of the play between expedient deception and honourable conduct.
As Odysseus states: "Deceit is a weapon we must use, if it brings us victory."
Parodos - The sailors' perspective
The Chorus of Sailors enters, showing sympathy for Philoctetes' suffering whilst acknowledging their fear of defying the powerful Greek leadership. They represent the common soldiers caught between compassion and duty, highlighting the moral tensions central to the play. Their words capture this dilemma: "We pity your suffering, Philoctetes, yet fear the power of the Atreidai."
The chorus serves as a moral barometer throughout the play, reflecting the audience's own conflicted feelings about the unfolding deception.
First episode - Meeting the abandoned hero
Philoctetes appears, physically weakened and emotionally scarred by years of isolation. He describes his decade of suffering and his bitter resentment towards Odysseus and the other Greek leaders (the Atreidai) who cruelly abandoned him.
Character Development: Philoctetes' Introduction
Sophocles masterfully introduces Philoctetes through his own words, allowing the audience to understand his pain both physical and emotional. His initial monologue reveals:
- Ten years of complete isolation
- Physical agony from his festering wound
- Deep psychological trauma from abandonment
- Desperate hunger for human companionship
This establishes him as a tragic figure worthy of sympathy despite his later stubbornness.
Neoptolemus approaches him with false friendship, pretending to share Philoctetes' anger against the Greek leadership. This deception succeeds in gaining Philoctetes' trust, as the lonely hero welcomes what he believes to be genuine companionship. Philoctetes movingly expresses his abandonment: "They left me, abandoned, alone, with this incurable wound."
Second episode - The stolen bow
Through his careful deception, Neoptolemus manages to trick Philoctetes into handing over Heracles' bow—the weapon vital for Troy's conquest. Philoctetes, grateful for what he believes is friendship, remains unaware of the true purpose behind Neoptolemus' actions.
When Philoctetes' wound flares up, causing him excruciating pain, Neoptolemus genuinely pities him but continues to conceal the truth about their mission. This episode reveals Neoptolemus' internal conflict between his naturally honest character and the deceptive role Odysseus has forced upon him. In an aside, he reveals his moral struggle: "My nature is to do no wrong, not by deceit nor by compulsion."
The successful theft of the bow represents the climax of the deception plot, but also marks the beginning of Neoptolemus' moral crisis. His growing guilt and genuine compassion for Philoctetes' suffering create the internal tension that will drive the play's resolution.
Third episode - The moral awakening
Neoptolemus experiences a crisis of conscience as guilt overwhelms him. Despite the Chorus urging him to remain loyal to Odysseus' plan, his sense of honour ultimately prevails. He confesses the entire deception to Philoctetes and returns the stolen bow, choosing integrity over expedient success.
Moral Transformation: Neoptolemus' Choice
The moment Neoptolemus returns the bow marks his complete moral transformation:
Before: Following orders, using deception, prioritising military success
During: Experiencing growing guilt and genuine compassion
After: Choosing personal honour over political expediency, accepting consequences
This transformation represents one of the most psychologically realistic character developments in Greek tragedy.
This honest admission shocks Philoctetes but begins to restore some trust between them. Neoptolemus' moral decision is encapsulated in his declaration: "Better to fail with honour than win by deceit."
Fourth episode - Odysseus' failed intervention
Odysseus reappears, furious that Neoptolemus has disobeyed his orders. He attempts to take Philoctetes by force, but this direct approach fails completely. Philoctetes absolutely refuses to sail for Troy, maintaining his dignity despite the pressure. He curses the Greek leaders and remains resolute in his rejection of their cause.
The confrontation reaches a stalemate: Philoctetes clings to his honour and his right to refuse participation, whilst Odysseus insists on military necessity. Philoctetes declares: "Never will I sail to Troy with those who wronged me."
This episode demonstrates that neither deception nor force can resolve the fundamental moral conflict. The deadlock between individual dignity and collective necessity requires a higher authority to resolve—setting up the need for divine intervention.
Exodos - Divine resolution
The human conflict proves irresolvable through mortal means, requiring divine intervention. Heracles appears as a deus ex machina (god from the machine), speaking from above the stage. Now a deified hero, he commands Philoctetes to join the expedition to Troy.
Heracles promises that Philoctetes' wound will be healed and that he will achieve everlasting glory through his participation in Troy's defeat. Crucially, Philoctetes accepts this divine command rather than human deception, allowing the play to end with reconciliation and obedience to fate.
Heracles' words provide the resolution: "Follow now the will of Zeus, and go to Troy; there you will be healed, and win everlasting honour."
Character development and themes
The play presents three distinct moral positions through its main characters, each representing different approaches to ethical decision-making:
Character Analysis: Three Moral Worldviews
Odysseus - Pragmatic Realism
- Believes ends justify means
- Prioritises collective victory over individual ethics
- Views deception as a necessary tool of statecraft
- Represents the political/military mindset
Neoptolemus - Evolving Honour
- Begins following orders but develops moral independence
- Struggles between duty and conscience
- Ultimately chooses personal integrity
- Represents the possibility of moral growth
Philoctetes - Dignified Suffering
- Maintains personal honour despite abandonment
- Refuses to compromise his principles for others' benefit
- Accepts divine authority but not human manipulation
- Represents the individual's right to moral autonomy
The central tension revolves around whether deception can ever be morally justified, even for a greater good. Sophocles explores how individuals respond when their personal values conflict with wider political or military necessities.
Key dramatic techniques
Literary and Dramatic Devices:
- Deus ex machina: Divine intervention resolves what human characters cannot
- Moral conflict: Each character faces difficult ethical choices
- Dramatic irony: The audience knows Neoptolemus is deceiving Philoctetes
- Physical suffering: Philoctetes' wound represents both literal and metaphorical pain
- Psychological realism: Characters undergo believable internal development
The deus ex machina ending has been controversial among critics, but it serves to demonstrate that some moral conflicts transcend human resolution and require divine authority to achieve justice and reconciliation.
Key Points to Remember:
- The bow of Heracles is the central object - everyone wants it because it's essential for Troy's defeat
- Neoptolemus undergoes moral development - he starts by following Odysseus' deceptive plan but eventually chooses honour over expediency
- Divine intervention resolves the human deadlock - typical of Greek tragedy where gods must solve what mortals cannot
- Three key quotes to remember: Odysseus on using deceit, Neoptolemus choosing honour, and Heracles commanding divine will
- The moral conflict drives the entire plot - pragmatism versus honour, with divine authority ultimately providing the solution
- The play explores whether individual dignity can coexist with collective necessity