Caregiver-infant Interactions in Humans (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Schaffer's Stages of Attachment
Stages of attachment refer to the sequence of qualitatively different behaviours that infants display at specific ages as their emotional bonds with caregivers develop. Multiple attachments describe the emotional bonds that babies form with two or more people after establishing their first significant relationship with a main carer.
The study: Schaffer and Emerson (1964)
Background and aims
Schaffer and Emerson recognised that attachment relationships are not present from birth but develop over time. They wanted to understand this developmental process by studying working-class families in Glasgow on a regular basis.
This groundbreaking research was one of the first systematic attempts to understand how attachment develops naturally in real family environments, moving away from purely theoretical approaches to studying actual infant behaviour over time.
Their research had two main objectives:
- To determine whether there was a universal pattern of attachment formation across all infants
- To identify and characterise the distinct phases through which attachment relationships develop
Participants
The researchers conducted a longitudinal investigation involving 60 newborn babies and their mothers from Glasgow, all from working-class backgrounds.
Procedure
The study followed families in their natural home environment over an extended period. Mothers and babies were observed monthly during the first year of life, with an additional follow-up at 18 months. The research combined direct observations with interviews where mothers answered questions about their infants' responses - including who made them smile, who they responded to, and who caused them distress.
Attachment strength was assessed through two key measures:
- Separation protest - evaluated through various everyday scenarios such as being left alone in a room, left with others, or placed in a pram outside shops
- Stranger anxiety - measured by observing the infant's reaction when unfamiliar people approached during home visits
Findings
The research revealed several important patterns:
Most infants began showing separation distress when parted from their attachment figure between 6-8 months, with stranger anxiety typically appearing about one month later. The strength of attachment relationships correlated with caregiver responsiveness - infants who developed strong attachments had mothers who responded quickly to their needs and provided frequent interaction opportunities.
Key Discovery: Quality Over Quantity
The study revealed that attachment strength was determined by the quality of caregiver responses rather than the amount of time spent together. This finding challenged common assumptions about who infants would become most attached to.
By 18 months, 87% of children had formed at least two attachment relationships, with 31% showing five or more attachments. Importantly, these different attachment relationships appeared similar in nature, with infants displaying comparable behaviours towards different attachment figures. In 39% of cases, the infant's strongest attachment was not with their main carer but with whoever provided the most skilled and interactive responses to their needs.
The four stages
Based on their observations, Schaffer and Emerson proposed that attachment develops through four distinct phases:
Stage 1: Asocial stage (first few weeks)
Despite being termed 'asocial', this stage actually involves the baby beginning to recognise and form early bonds with caregivers. However, infant behaviour towards humans and non-human objects remains quite similar during this period.
The term "asocial" can be misleading as babies are actually beginning important social processes during this time, but their responses are not yet clearly differentiated between social and non-social stimuli.
Babies do show some preference for familiar adults, as these individuals find it easier to soothe them, and infants appear happier when other humans are present.
Stage 2: Indiscriminate attachment (2-7 months)
During this phase, babies become more obviously social in their behaviour. They show clear preferences for people over inanimate objects and can recognise and prefer familiar adults. However, at this stage infants typically accept comfort and cuddles from any adult and do not usually display separation or stranger anxiety. Their attachment behaviour is considered indiscriminate because it is not directed towards any specific person.
Stage 3: Specific attachment (from around 7 months)
From approximately 7 months, most babies begin displaying anxiety towards strangers and become distressed when separated from one particular adult (typically the biological mother in 65% of cases). At this point, the baby has formed a specific attachment relationship.
The Primary Attachment Figure
This adult becomes the primary attachment figure - not necessarily the person who spends most time with the child, but the one who provides the most interaction and responds most skilfully to the baby's signals.
Stage 4: Multiple attachments (shortly after specific attachment)
Once babies establish attachment behaviour towards one adult, they typically extend this to form multiple attachments with other adults they regularly spend time with. These additional relationships are called secondary attachments. In Schaffer and Emerson's study, 29% of children developed secondary attachments within a month of forming their primary attachment. By approximately one year, the majority of infants had developed multiple attachments.
Evaluation: Strengths
Good external validity
The research was conducted in families' natural home environments, with most observations carried out by parents during ordinary daily activities rather than in artificial laboratory settings.
Naturalistic Approach Benefits
This naturalistic approach means the observed behaviour was unlikely to be influenced by the presence of researchers, providing an excellent opportunity for participants to behave naturally. The study therefore demonstrates strong external validity.
Longitudinal design
A significant strength was the longitudinal methodology, which involved following the same children over time with regular observations. This approach provides better internal validity than cross-sectional designs because it eliminates the confounding variable of individual differences between participants. The researchers could track genuine developmental changes within each child rather than comparing different children at different ages.
Evaluation: Weaknesses
Limited sample characteristics
While the sample size of 60 babies was reasonable for gathering comprehensive data on each participant, the fact that all families came from the same geographical area, social class, and historical period represents a significant limitation.
Generalisability Concerns
Child-rearing practices vary considerably across cultures and historical periods, so these findings may not generalise well to other social and cultural contexts.
Problems studying the asocial stage
Schaffer and Emerson's description of the first few weeks as 'asocial' is problematic because babies of this age have limited coordination and mobility. This makes it extremely difficult to make reliable judgements about their behaviour through observation alone. While important interactions may be occurring during these early weeks, the lack of observable behaviour makes it challenging to draw firm conclusions about infants' emotional and cognitive experiences.
Conflicting evidence on multiple attachments
While children clearly become capable of multiple attachments, there remains debate about the timing of this development. Some research suggests that most infants form attachments to a single main carer before developing multiple relationships, supporting Bowlby's hierarchical model.
However, other studies from cultures where multiple caregivers are the norm suggest that babies can form multiple attachments from the outset, challenging the universal nature of Schaffer's stages.
Limited behavioural measures
Schaffer and Emerson used relatively simple behaviours - stranger anxiety and separation anxiety - to define attachment. While these measures are easily observable and allow for objective judgements with good inter-rater reliability, critics argue that attachment is more complex than these two behaviours suggest.
Measurement Limitations
The measures may not fully capture the richness and complexity of attachment relationships, potentially limiting the validity of the findings.
Key Points to Remember:
- Schaffer and Emerson identified four stages: asocial, indiscriminate attachment, specific attachment, and multiple attachments
- The study demonstrated that attachment quality depends on caregiver responsiveness rather than time spent together
- Multiple attachments are normal and develop after the primary attachment relationship is established
- The research has strong external validity due to its naturalistic setting but limited generalisability due to its narrow sample
- The stages provide a useful framework for understanding attachment development, though some aspects remain debated