Constitutional Reform (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Constitutional Reform
Introduction: The need for constitutional change
By 1990, Gorbachev faced a critical problem. His policy of democratisation had successfully weakened the Communist Party's grip on power, but it had not created the strong, effective government he needed. This left Gorbachev in a difficult position - he required strong central authority to implement his economic reforms and maintain order across the Soviet Union, yet his own reforms had undermined this very authority.
The process of democratisation raised fundamental questions about the Communist Party's role in Soviet society. Boris Yeltsin, emerging as a rival to Gorbachev, pushed for a new constitution that would officially end the Party's privileged position as the leading political force. Gorbachev himself recognised the need for constitutional changes, though his motivations were different - he wanted new powers that would help him tackle the Soviet Union's deepening economic and political crises.
This dilemma represents one of the great paradoxes of Gorbachev's leadership: the reforms designed to strengthen his position and revitalise the Soviet system were simultaneously creating the conditions for their own failure.
The presidency
Creating the position
In March 1990, Gorbachev assumed the newly created role of President of the Soviet Union. Whilst this appeared to be a victory for Gorbachev in the short term, the way he obtained this position would create significant long-term problems for his leadership and legitimacy.
Gorbachev established the presidency for several strategic reasons:
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Increasing his personal power: Democratisation had unexpectedly weakened rather than strengthened Gorbachev's position. He had hoped that making the political system more democratic would give him a power base independent of the Communist Party, but this plan backfired.
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Creating an independent position: Although democratisation had given the Supreme Soviet (the main legislative body) new authority, Gorbachev found himself unable to control this institution. The presidency was designed to be independent of both the Communist Party and the Supreme Soviet, giving Gorbachev a new platform for his power.
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Bypassing democratic challenges: The Supreme Soviet had become too unpredictable for Gorbachev to rely upon, so he needed an alternative source of authority.
The appointment controversy
Gorbachev faced a critical dilemma when creating the presidency: should he stand for election or seek appointment? This decision would have profound consequences for his legitimacy.
The risk of an election: Standing for election as President was extremely risky. Yeltsin's popularity had grown steadily since the 1989 elections, and there was a real possibility that Yeltsin, not Gorbachev, would win a presidential election. This would have been disastrous for Gorbachev's position.
The solution - appointment: To avoid this risk, Gorbachev decided that the first President would be appointed by the Congress of People's Deputies, where he still commanded majority support. This ensured his appointment, but created a serious problem of democratic legitimacy.
The Legitimacy Gap
Unlike his rivals, particularly Yeltsin, who had been elected to their positions through popular votes, Gorbachev had not faced the electorate. This meant he lacked a democratic mandate from the Soviet people, weakening his moral authority to lead reforms in the name of democracy. This contradiction - a reformer promoting democracy whilst avoiding elections himself - would increasingly undermine Gorbachev's position.
Emergency powers and their consequences
Following his appointment, Gorbachev received emergency powers for 18 months. These extraordinary powers were justified by two pressing crises:
- The severe economic crisis threatening the Soviet economy
- Growing unrest and separatist movements in the non-Russian republics
How Gorbachev used these powers: On various occasions, Gorbachev exercised his emergency powers in ways that seemed to contradict his earlier commitment to reform:
- Censoring the press: Despite glasnost's emphasis on openness, Gorbachev used his powers to restrict media freedom when he felt it necessary
- Deploying Soviet troops: He ordered military intervention to restore order, particularly in the non-Russian republics where nationalist movements were gaining strength
Criticism from reformers
These actions drew sharp criticism from radical reformers who had previously supported Gorbachev. Critics accused him of:
- Abandoning his commitment to reform
- Introducing a new form of dictatorship
- Betraying the principles of glasnost and democratisation
Shevardnadze's resignation: The most damaging criticism came from within Gorbachev's own circle. Eduard Shevardnadze, who had been a key supporter of Gorbachev's reforms throughout the 1980s, resigned from the government in December 1990. His resignation was accompanied by a devastating public statement - he argued that Gorbachev had turned away from the path to democracy, representing a major blow to Gorbachev's credibility as a reformer.
The failure of reform by 1990
The paradox of Gorbachev's reforms
Gorbachev had introduced glasnost (openness) and democratisation with clear goals: to revitalise the Communist Party and rescue the Soviet economy. By 1990, it was clear that these reforms had achieved neither objective. Instead, they had contributed to the very dissolution of the Soviet Union that Gorbachev had sought to prevent.
The destructive impact of glasnost: Greater openness had fundamentally destroyed the Communist Party's authority. The policy produced two damaging effects:
- It exposed the Party's failures, corruption, and historical crimes, undermining public faith in Communist rule
- It simultaneously gave anti-communist opposition groups the freedom to publicly criticise the government, creating organised resistance
How democratisation weakened the Party: The introduction of democratic elements into Soviet politics backfired by bringing the Communist Party's democratic legitimacy into question. If the Soviet Union was becoming democratic, why should one party maintain its monopoly on power? This question proved impossible for Gorbachev to answer convincingly.
Gorbachev's destroyed power base
By 1990, Gorbachev's own reforms had dismantled the foundations of his power, creating a vicious circle:
- His reforms had weakened the Communist Party, which had been his original power base
- He could not control the new democratic institutions (like the Supreme Soviet) that emerged from his reforms
- He refused to seek democratic legitimacy through elections
- Without a clear power base, he found it increasingly difficult to push through further reforms
The mandate he never sought
Although Gorbachev consistently emphasised the importance of democracy, he never subjected himself to a democratic election. This refusal meant he never obtained a mandate (official authority granted by voters) for either his position or his reform programme. This contradiction became increasingly problematic as other politicians, like Yeltsin, gained democratic legitimacy through elections.
Misreading the public mood
Gorbachev made a critical miscalculation about Soviet public opinion. He consistently believed that the Soviet people would support his reform agenda and back his leadership. However, he fundamentally misunderstood the mood and desires of the population.
The loss of faith: Democratisation ultimately undermined the Soviet Union because it revealed a truth that Gorbachev had not anticipated - the Soviet people had lost faith in both:
- The Communist Party as an institution capable of governing effectively
- The Soviet Union itself as a political entity worth preserving
This loss of faith meant that when given opportunities through democratic processes to express their views, many Soviet citizens supported alternatives to Communist rule and, increasingly, the dissolution of the Union itself.
Key Points to Remember:
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Gorbachev created the presidency in March 1990 to increase his power after democratisation had weakened his position within the Communist Party.
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He chose to be appointed by the Congress of People's Deputies rather than stand for election, avoiding the risk of losing to Yeltsin but sacrificing democratic legitimacy.
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Emergency powers for 18 months allowed Gorbachev to censor the press and deploy troops, leading radicals to accuse him of abandoning reform and creating a new dictatorship.
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By 1990, glasnost and democratisation had backfired - they destroyed the Communist Party's authority and Gorbachev's power base whilst failing to revitalise either the Party or the economy.
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Gorbachev's refusal to stand for election meant he never gained a mandate from the Soviet people, undermining his authority as a democratic reformer and his ability to implement further changes.