Democratisation, 1988–90 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
Democratisation, 1988–90
Introduction
Gorbachev committed the Communist Party to creating a genuine democracy in 1986. However, the real turning point came at the Nineteenth Party Conference in 1988, where he outlined his vision for socialist democracy. This marked the beginning of a period of significant political reform that would fundamentally weaken the Communist Party's monopoly on power and ultimately contribute to the fall of the Soviet Union.
The 1988 Conference represented a watershed moment in Soviet history, initiating reforms that would set in motion forces far beyond what Gorbachev initially anticipated. These changes would ultimately transform the entire Soviet political system.
The Nineteenth Party Conference, 1988
Background: Soviet elections before reform
Since 1917, Russian citizens had voted in local soviet elections. However, this was largely a formality. From the 1920s onwards, voters had no real choice because:
- Only single candidates appeared on ballot papers
- These candidates were appointed by the Communist Party
- This system guaranteed Communist Party control over all soviets
- Elections served to legitimise Party power rather than provide genuine democracy
This system ensured the Communist Party maintained total control over the political system for over six decades.
Gorbachev's reforms: Multi-candidate elections
At the 1988 Conference, Gorbachev introduced revolutionary changes to the Soviet political system. The key reform was the introduction of multi-candidate elections to the Supreme Soviet.
The Significance of Multi-Candidate Elections
This reform represented a fundamental shift in power dynamics. By allowing voters to choose between different candidates, Gorbachev was effectively transferring power from the Party elite to ordinary citizens for the first time since the early years of Soviet rule.
From 1989 onwards, Soviet citizens gained the right to vote in elections where:
- Multiple Communist Party candidates could compete against each other
- Independent candidates could also stand for election
- Voters had genuine choices between candidates with different views
This represented a fundamental shift in power. Multi-candidate elections stripped the Communist Party of its ability to simply appoint candidates, transferring significant power from the Party leadership to ordinary Soviet citizens.
Limitations of the reforms
While groundbreaking, the 1988 reforms were only partial democratisation:
- Of the 2,250 seats in the new Congress of People's Deputies, only 1,500 would be elected through multi-candidate elections
- The remaining 750 seats would still be appointed by the Communist Party and other official organisations
- Multi-candidate elections did not permit different political parties to compete
- Citizens could only choose between radicals, moderates and independents within the existing system
Critical Limitation
Despite introducing multi-candidate elections, the reforms maintained the Communist Party's monopoly on political organisation. No rival political parties were permitted to form, meaning voters could only choose between different positions within the existing Communist system.
Despite these limitations, voters could make meaningful choices for the first time. Gorbachev hoped that Soviet citizens would support radical candidates, providing him with a popular mandate to push through further reforms.
Reform of the Supreme Soviet
The Supreme Soviet itself underwent significant restructuring:
- The new Congress of People's Deputies would elect the Supreme Soviet
- Instead of meeting just once annually, the Supreme Soviet would now convene for two three-month sessions every year
- Gorbachev appointed himself Chair of the Supreme Soviet, consolidating his personal power
These reforms had profound implications. For the first time since 1921, the Supreme Soviet became at least partly independent of Party leadership. This significantly weakened the Communist Party's grip on power.
The 1989 elections
The campaign and results
The March–April 1989 elections marked a watershed moment in Soviet politics. The election campaign forced candidates to engage in public debate to win votes, introducing competitive politics to the Soviet Union for the first time in decades.
The election results were mixed:
- Communists won approximately 80 per cent of seats in the Congress of People's Deputies
- However, several high-ranking communists were defeated, including five members of the Central Committee
- Radical candidates performed strongly
- Boris Yeltsin achieved a landslide victory in Moscow with 89 per cent of the vote
The Defeat of Party Officials
The defeat of high-ranking Communist Party members was particularly significant. It demonstrated that voters were willing to reject Party-approved candidates, marking a genuine shift in political power and accountability.
Formation of the Inter-regional Deputies' Group (IRDG)
Shortly after the election, a group of newly elected deputies formed the Inter-regional Deputies' Group (IRDG). Key members included:
- Boris Yeltsin
- Andrei Sakharov (prominent dissident and human rights activist)
The IRDG embraced a radical anti-communist agenda that included:
- Introduction of private property
- Greater autonomy for the republics within the Soviet Union
Historic Significance of the IRDG
The creation of the IRDG was hugely significant. It represented the first organised opposition group with an official position within the Soviet system since the early 1920s. This marked an important step towards genuine democracy and pluralism, breaking the Communist Party's monopoly on organised political activity.
Unintended consequences
While the election weakened the moderate position within the Party as Gorbachev had hoped, it also produced consequences he did not anticipate:
Nationalist Campaigns
Nationalists seeking to break up the Soviet Union used the election to campaign for independence. In Georgia, these campaigns led to violence and political instability, demonstrating how democratisation could fuel centrifugal forces threatening Soviet unity.
Yeltsin's Rise to Power
Boris Yeltsin emerged from the election as a popular figure and a serious rival to Gorbachev. Yeltsin advocated replacing the Soviet Union with a loose confederation of truly independent states. This vision proved extremely popular with nationalists across the Soviet Union, making Yeltsin a direct threat to Soviet unity and Gorbachev's reform programme.
The 1990 republic elections
Anti-communist victories
The March 1990 elections to republic-level soviets demonstrated even stronger anti-communist trends:
Moscow: A new group called Democratic Russia won 85 per cent of the seats
Leningrad: Another new anti-communist organisation, Democratic Elections 90, took 80 per cent of the seats
Impact on the Communist Party
Gorbachev had assumed that democratisation would strengthen radical reformers within the Communist Party. Instead, the soviet elections weakened the entire Party structure.
The Paradox of Democratisation
The elections increased the authority and legitimacy of Anti-Party groups and Nationalist movements, rather than strengthening the Communist Party as Gorbachev had hoped. Like glasnost (openness), the consequences of democratisation proved far more radical than Gorbachev had anticipated. His reforms unleashed forces that he could not control.
Historical interpretations: The significance of the 1989 elections
Historians have debated the meaning and significance of the 1989 elections, particularly regarding Gorbachev's intentions.
Robert Service's interpretation: Revolutionary transformation
Robert Service (2007): Deliberate Revolutionary Change
Robert Service views the 1989 elections as a decisive turning point. He argues that:
- In 1985, Gorbachev aimed to enhance the one-party state's effectiveness, not terminate it
- He genuinely believed Soviet reforms could create a system superior to Western capitalism
- By 1989, Gorbachev was no longer seeking to adjust the Soviet system but to transform it fundamentally
- He deliberately turned basic features of the Soviet Union into their opposites
- The transition from appointed to elected soviets was the first great step in constitutional change
- In 1990, he repealed Article Six of the Soviet Constitution, which had guaranteed the Communist Party's leading role, allowing formation of rival political parties
- This represented revolutionary change unprecedented since the early years of the Soviet state
Service emphasises Gorbachev's ingenuity and audacity in pursuing radical transformation.
Neil Robinson's interpretation: Reinvigoration of the Party
Neil Robinson (1995): Continuity and Party Reinvigoration
Neil Robinson offers a contrasting view. He argues that:
- The Party leadership believed it was inconceivable that the Party would suffer in the March 1989 elections
- Gorbachev believed the Party's vanguard role (its position as the leading political force) and its acceptance by the people were identical
- He assumed people would inevitably recognise the Party's true nature as a political leader
- The elections were definitely not intended to alter the Soviet political system in any fundamental way
- During the election campaign, Gorbachev claimed the elections proved there was no need for multi-party politics
- The reforms were designed to reinvigorate the Party, not transform it
Robinson sees the elections as a development of Gorbachev's original programme rather than a major change in direction.
Comparing the interpretations
These interpretations differ fundamentally in how they understand Gorbachev's intentions:
Service emphasises deliberate revolutionary change and Gorbachev's evolving radicalism between 1985 and 1989.
Robinson stresses continuity and argues Gorbachev intended to strengthen rather than transform the Communist Party's role.
Common Ground
Both historians would likely agree that the actual consequences of the elections weakened the Communist Party significantly, regardless of Gorbachev's original intentions. The debate centres on whether this outcome was intentional or accidental.
Key terms and concepts
Socialist democracy: Gorbachev's vision of combining democratic reforms with maintaining socialism and Communist Party leadership.
Multi-candidate elections: Elections where voters could choose between multiple candidates rather than simply approving a single Party-appointed candidate.
Congress of People's Deputies: New legislative body created in 1988 with 2,250 members, of which 1,500 were elected and 750 appointed.
Supreme Soviet: The standing legislative body elected by the Congress of People's Deputies, reformed to meet more frequently.
Party Conference: Smaller meetings of the Communist Party called to discuss specific issues between Party Congresses.
Inter-regional Deputies' Group (IRDG): First organised opposition group within the Soviet system, formed after the 1989 elections with an anti-communist agenda.
Vanguard role: The Communist Party's theoretical position as the leading political force guiding Soviet society.
Article Six: Constitutional provision guaranteeing the Communist Party's leading role in the Soviet system, repealed in 1990.
Key Points to Remember:
- The Nineteenth Party Conference of 1988 introduced multi-candidate elections, fundamentally challenging Communist Party control for the first time since the 1920s
- The 1989 elections strengthened radical candidates like Boris Yeltsin and led to the formation of the IRDG, the first organised opposition group within the Soviet system
- Democratisation had unintended consequences: it empowered nationalist movements, strengthened anti-communist groups, and elevated Yeltsin as a rival to Gorbachev
- The 1990 republic elections saw massive victories for anti-communist groups, further weakening the Communist Party
- Historians debate Gorbachev's intentions: Service sees deliberate revolutionary transformation, while Robinson argues he intended to reinvigorate rather than transform the Party
- Like glasnost, democratisation proved far more radical in its consequences than Gorbachev anticipated, ultimately contributing to the collapse of Communist Party power