The Union and the Republics before 1985 (Edexcel A-Level History): Revision Notes
The Union and the Republics before 1985
Introduction to the Soviet Union structure
In 1985, when Mikhail Gorbachev became leader, the Soviet Union was composed of 15 republics. These included the Soviet Republics of Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Georgia and Latvia. The Soviet Union was more accurately described as a supranational organisation rather than a single nation.
According to the Soviet Constitution, each republic was technically an independent nation. Each had its own Supreme Soviet and governmental institutions. However, the reality was very different. The Soviet Communist Party, based in Moscow, actually governed the entire Soviet Union, meaning the republics had little genuine independence.
The Soviet Government was dominated by Slavs, the vast majority of whom were Russians. This meant the Soviet Union functioned more like an empire, with the non-Russian republics effectively serving as Russia's colonies.
From 1917 to 1985, nationalism in the republics was managed through a combination of economic incentives, political opportunities, and repression.
Understanding nationalism
Nationalism played a crucial role in Soviet history, but the term has different meanings that need to be understood clearly.
Liberal nationalism
Liberal nationalism is the belief that all nations should be self-governing and independent of control by other nations. This type of nationalism emerged as a powerful force in the Soviet Union during the 1980s, leading to campaigns for the republics to break away from Soviet control.
Chauvinistic nationalism
Chauvinistic nationalism is the view that a specific nation has the right to rule or guide the development of other countries or nations. This form of nationalism was common in the empires that dominated global politics in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was prevalent in Russia before the October Revolution and influenced Soviet nationalism, providing justification for Soviet control over the republics.
Soviet politics and nationalism
Political structures and organisation were key methods used by the Soviet Union to control nationalism between 1917 and 1985.
Republic government systems
Each republic maintained its own government system. Following Stalin's purges, which eliminated the previous generation of leaders in each republic, ambitious and talented individuals could secure powerful and well-paid positions within their republics from 1938 onwards.
Republican governments were typically dominated by people from that specific republic. For example, the government of Georgia was dominated by Georgians. These local leaders owed their power and wealth to the Soviet system, which encouraged their loyalty to Moscow.
Control through the secret police and army
Whilst local governments were dominated by local people, other crucial organisations were not. The secret police and the army were always dominated by Russians and maintained under strict central control. This meant the Soviet Government was constantly prepared to deal with unrest through terror or military intervention.
Under Yuri Andropov's leadership, the KGB kept nationalists under continuous surveillance. By 1975, approximately half of the people imprisoned or subjected to repressive psychiatry were nationalists.
Soviet nationalism
Although the Soviet Union was not a nation in the traditional sense, the government attempted to inspire loyalty to the Union through creating what became known as Soviet nationalism.
The concept and its promotion
During the 1920s and again after Stalin's death, citizens of the republics were encouraged to prioritise loyalty to the Union over loyalty to their individual nations. The government argued that traditional nationalism encouraged division and competition, whereas Soviet nationalism was superior because it was based on ethnic equality and unity.
From 1945 onwards, all Soviet citizens were encouraged to take pride in the Soviet Union's superpower status and the fact that they belonged to one of the most powerful nations on earth.
Why Soviet nationalism was unpopular
However, Soviet nationalism proved unpopular in many non-Russian republics because, in practice, it was based on Russian values and traditions. Non-Russians were expected to renounce their existing customs, traditions and language, and assimilate by adopting Russian customs instead.
In this sense, Soviet nationalism was actually based on the assumption of Russian superiority and the inferiority of other cultures. This fundamental contradiction between the rhetoric of equality and the reality of Russian cultural dominance undermined its effectiveness.
Gorbachev's misunderstanding
Significantly, Gorbachev failed to understand the weaknesses of Soviet nationalism. He appears to have genuinely believed that Soviet citizens had abandoned their national identities and become a united 'Soviet people'. Consequently, he assumed the Soviet Union was more stable than it actually was, and the strength of nationalism in the republics took him completely by surprise.
Gorbachev's misreading of Soviet nationalism's success would prove to be one of the most critical miscalculations in Soviet history. His assumption that citizens had embraced a unified Soviet identity left him unprepared for the nationalist movements that would ultimately contribute to the Union's dissolution.
The Soviet economy and nationalism
Economic benefits provided another important method of controlling nationalism before 1985.
Investment in non-Russian republics
From 1953, economic planners directed investment towards the poorer regions of the Soviet Union. As these areas tended to be located in the non-Russian republics, this led to improved living standards for the majority of people in the 13 non-Russian republics.
Under Leonid Brezhnev, the social contract was as crucial to managing the republics as it was to managing Russia. In exchange for obedience, people's lives were transformed as areas of Central Asia were urbanised and modernised.
Educational opportunities
Educational investment was also higher in the non-Russian republics, and it was easier for non-Russians to secure university places. Under Brezhnev, the system developed into what historian Terry Martin has called an affirmative action empire.
Non-Russians who took advantage of these opportunities could obtain good jobs and improve their standard of living. Significantly, these benefits could only continue whilst the economy kept growing.
Economic decline in the 1980s threatened to reduce living standards and opportunities for people in the republics, thereby undermining the Union's stability. The entire system of economic control depended on continued growth – when growth stopped, so did the incentive for republics to remain in the Union.
Nationalism under Brezhnev
Under Brezhnev's leadership, the government permitted some forms of national self-expression. This increased tolerance of nationalism would later contribute to the emergence of anti-Soviet nationalist movements.
Policies promoting national culture
Following 1964, several key policies were implemented:
- Each republic gained the right to introduce education in their own language
- There was an increase in the publication of books and newspapers in non-Russian languages throughout the republics
- Folk art, folk music and museums devoted to national culture were permitted in each republic
- Brezhnev established new universities to educate non-Russian citizens of the Union
- Brezhnev's trust in cadres policy allowed local elites to consolidate their control over the Communist Parties in the non-Russian republics
- There was greater representation of Turkic people in the Central Committee and Politburo
These measures, whilst intended to satisfy national sentiment within the framework of Soviet control, inadvertently strengthened national identities that would later challenge Soviet authority. The very policies designed to maintain stability ultimately helped create the conditions for nationalist movements in the 1980s.
Key Points to Remember:
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The Soviet Union consisted of 15 republics that were theoretically independent but actually controlled by Moscow and dominated by Russians, functioning more like an empire than a genuine union
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Nationalism was controlled through a mixture of political opportunities (local government positions for loyal locals), economic benefits (investment and education in non-Russian areas), promotion of Soviet nationalism, and repression (Russian-dominated secret police and army)
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Soviet nationalism attempted to create loyalty to the Union but was unpopular because it required non-Russians to assimilate to Russian culture, and Gorbachev wrongly believed it had succeeded in creating a unified 'Soviet people'
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Brezhnev's policies allowed limited national self-expression (language education, cultural activities, greater representation), creating an affirmative action empire, but this tolerance would later fuel anti-Soviet nationalism
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The system's stability depended on continued economic growth to provide benefits to the republics, making it vulnerable when the economy declined in the 1980s