Changes in the army (Edexcel GCSE History): Revision Notes
Changes in the army (c1500-c1700)
Introduction
During the early modern period between 1500 and 1700, warfare underwent a dramatic transformation that fundamentally changed English society. This era marked the shift from mediaeval fighting methods to professional military forces. Men began to work as full-time professional soldiers rather than part-time fighters, and they received proper training with new weapons and tactics that would revolutionise how battles were fought.
This transformation period coincided with the Renaissance and the rise of centralised nation-states across Europe, making military professionalisation both a cause and consequence of broader social and political changes.
Army composition and structure
Professional development
The composition of English armies changed significantly during this period as military service became more specialised. Armies still maintained the traditional three main branches - cavalry, infantry, and artillery - but each required different types of support. Professional soldiers now worked alongside labourers, engineers, and baggage trains that carried essential supplies to keep armies functioning in the field.
Leadership and recruitment changes
Military leadership also evolved during this time. Most generals continued to prefer having twice as many infantry soldiers as cavalry when possible, recognising that foot soldiers formed the backbone of any effective army. However, the biggest change came in training requirements. As new weapons like muskets and cannons became standard equipment, armies needed soldiers who could master these complex technologies. This meant that military service became more professional, with dedicated time needed to train effectively.
The shift to professional military service fundamentally changed the relationship between soldiers and the state. Unlike feudal levies who served temporarily, professional soldiers developed loyalty to their commanders and paymasters rather than to local lords.
Artillery development
Artillery trains slowly grew in both size and importance throughout this period. Field artillery became more effective and mobile, allowing commanders to bring firepower directly to battlefields. This technological advancement fundamentally changed how armies were organised and how battles were planned.
Battlefield roles and tactics
The decline of cavalry dominance
Cavalry underwent perhaps the most dramatic transformation of all military branches during this period. While mounted soldiers maintained their specialist role, they were no longer the decisive force that could win battles single-handedly. Instead of relying on devastating cavalry charges, mounted units increasingly focused on harassment tactics using pistols and skirmishing with enemy cavalry forces.
Evolution of mounted units
The traditional mounted charge became much less effective and was rarely used until it experienced a brief revival during the English Civil Wars. A new type of unit called dragoons emerged - these were mounted infantry who used horses for transportation but dismounted to fight as archers until 1700. This innovation showed how military leaders adapted traditional roles to meet changing battlefield conditions.
Infantry transformation
Infantry forces experienced equally significant changes as they adapted to new weapons and tactics. Professional soldiers were now divided into two primary roles: musketeers gradually replaced traditional archers as the main ranged fighters, while armoured pikemen increasingly fought in large, disciplined squares or columns. This combination created a more flexible and effective fighting force.
Government involvement and funding
State control increases
English rulers began using taxes more systematically to pay for military forces, marking a shift towards state-controlled armies. The use of mercenary soldiers also increased significantly during this period. These professional fighters owed their loyalty to whoever recruited them and paid their wages, rather than to traditional feudal lords. This change represented a fundamental shift in how military loyalty and service were organised.
Development of standing armies
The concept of a standing army - a permanent force of full-time, professional soldiers - became increasingly important during this era. These forces gave rulers much greater military power and ensured that troops remained well-trained and ready for action. However, the development of standing armies also raised important political concerns about the balance of power between monarchs and Parliament.
Before the Civil War, England lacked a permanent standing army. Parliament controlled taxation and feared that a standing army would become too expensive and might make the king too powerful. This tension between military effectiveness and political control would shape English government for centuries.
During the Civil War, Parliament established its own standing army to fight against royal forces. This decision would have long-lasting consequences for English political and military development.
Strategy and tactical innovations
Combined arms tactics
Military strategists discovered that pikemen alone could not effectively stop a cavalry charge, but they became much more effective when working alongside musketeers. Pikemen and musketeers had to coordinate their actions carefully to maximise their effectiveness on the battlefield. This cooperation represented a significant advance in military thinking.
Worked Example: Combined Arms Coordination
Step 1: Musketeers fire volleys at approaching cavalry to disrupt their charge Step 2: As cavalry gets closer, musketeers retreat behind the protective pike squares Step 3: Pikemen present their pikes forwards to create a "hedge of steel" against mounted attack Step 4: Once cavalry is repelled, musketeers advance again to continue firing
This coordinated approach proved far more effective than either unit type fighting alone.
Formation changes
Armies required extensive training to change their formations quickly during battle. When facing cavalry attacks, pikemen would form protective squares around the musketeers to shield them from mounted assault. By 1600, traditional squares were being replaced by lines of musketeers that could deliver concentrated volleys of fire against enemy forces. This tactical evolution reflected the growing importance of firearms in determining battle outcomes.
Between 1645 and 1660, the New Model Army became heavily involved in English politics and government. After 1660, when the monarchy was restored, memories of military interference made politicians very cautious about maintaining large standing forces. It took about a century before Parliament finally agreed to formalise a permanent standing army in 1775.
Key figure: Oliver Cromwell
Oliver Cromwell played a crucial role in establishing the New Model Army and transforming English military organisation. He became the head of the army's cavalry, but his approach to military command was revolutionary rather than traditional. Cromwell emphasised the importance of ability and previous battlefield success over social status when selecting officers.
Cromwell's meritocratic approach to military promotion was radical for its time, as traditional armies typically appointed officers based on noble birth rather than military competence. This innovation helped create one of Europe's most effective fighting forces.
The cavalry units he recruited and trained formed the core of the New Model Army's mounted forces. Cromwell's innovations in military leadership and organisation had lasting effects on how English armies were structured and commanded.
Timeline of major developments
Development of a standing army
- 1639-40: Limitations placed on English militia during Scottish occupation of northern England
- 1645: Parliament forms the New Model Army as a professional fighting force to win the Civil War
- 1648: Second Civil War leads to Oliver Cromwell becoming Protector of England, with the Army retained
- 1660-88: Return of the monarchy, with the Army continuing to be retained due to constant threat of war
- 1688 onwards: Army 'renewed' each year to maintain the principle of no permanent standing army
Key Points to Remember:
- Professional armies emerged: Between 1500-1700, warfare became dominated by full-time professional soldiers rather than part-time fighters
- Combined tactics developed: Successful armies learned to coordinate pikemen, musketeers, and cavalry together rather than relying on single unit types
- Government control increased: Rulers used taxation to fund permanent armies, reducing reliance on feudal obligations and mercenaries
- Political concerns arose: Standing armies created tension between military effectiveness and fears about royal power versus Parliamentary authority
- Technology drove change: New weapons like muskets and improved artillery forced armies to develop new training methods and battlefield tactics