John Locke (Leaving Cert Politics and Society): Revision Notes

John Locke

John Locke (1632-1704) stands as one of the most influential political philosophers in Western thought, profoundly shaping modern ideas about government, individual rights, and the relationship between citizens and the state. Understanding Locke requires examining both his historical context and his revolutionary ideas about human nature and political authority.

Historical context and influences

Locke's political philosophy cannot be separated from the tumultuous times in which he lived. Working as a physician for Lord Shaftesbury, a prominent constitutional and liberal politician, Locke became deeply involved in the political struggles of 17th-century England. The threat of absolute monarchy, particularly concerns about Catholic succession to the English throne, shaped his thinking about legitimate government and individual rights.

When constitutionalism faced challenges from supporters of absolute monarchical power, Locke became increasingly active in politics. He feared that if a Catholic monarch took the throne, the achievements of the English Civil War would be lost. This concern was particularly acute given that theorists like Sir Robert Filmer were developing arguments to justify absolutism - the idea that monarchs should have unlimited power.

The state of nature and human nature

Unlike Thomas Hobbes, who viewed humans as fundamentally selfish and the state of nature as brutally competitive, Locke presented a more optimistic view of human nature. For Locke, humans are not merely self-interested individuals but moral beings bound by a moral code to do what is right and natural.

Locke's conception of the state of nature rests on three fundamental principles:

Perfect equality

In the state of nature, no individual has the right to subordinate another. All humans are created equal by God, and this equality forms the foundation for legitimate political authority. This principle directly challenges the divine right of kings and aristocratic privilege.

Perfect liberty

Locke described this as the freedom to live according to the laws of nature, meaning individuals can act freely as long as their actions are morally acceptable. This liberty is not unlimited freedom to do anything, but rather freedom constrained by natural moral obligations.

Law of nature

This divine law, created by God, establishes that humans have fundamental obligations towards one another. The Law of Nature governs behaviour in the state of nature and provides the moral foundation for political society.

The law of nature and moral obligations

The Law of Nature serves as the cornerstone of Locke's political philosophy. Unlike Hobbes, who believed people would naturally seek peace through war if necessary, Locke argued that the state of nature is governed by divine moral law. This law establishes that no one has the right to harm another individual, as doing so would constitute an affront to God.

Locke believed people have a natural duty to preserve mankind and to help others, provided they do not harm themselves in the process. This creates a moral framework that exists prior to government and provides the standard by which governments themselves can be judged.

Legitimate government and the social contract

Locke's theory of legitimate government emerges from his understanding of natural equality and moral obligation. Legitimate government can only exist when people voluntarily renounce some of their natural rights and band together to form a civil society.

The formation of legitimate political authority requires two essential stages:

Collective consent

Individuals must agree to leave the state of nature and form a political community. This is not simply majority rule, but a collective decision to create government.

Government through trust

Political authority is established through trust, not right. The government exists only because society has chosen to trust it with power. This trust can be withdrawn if the government fails to serve the people's interests.

As Locke famously stated: "The liberty of man in society is to be under no other legislative power but that established by consent in the commonwealth, nor under the dominion of any will, or restraint of any law, but what the legislative shall enact, according to the trust put in it."

Continuous consent

Locke emphasised that continuous consent is essential for legitimate government. Being born into a society does not automatically create political obligation - individuals must actively consent to be governed. If the government loses the ongoing support of the people, it becomes illegitimate.

Characteristics of legitimate power

For Locke, legitimate government is "Power plus right" - it must have both the ability to govern and the moral authority to do so. This legitimacy is constrained by several crucial limitations:

Property rights

Property represents a central element of Locke's political philosophy, though his conception differs significantly from modern understandings. For Locke, property is fundamentally metaphysical - it emerges from the divine nature of human beings and ultimately refers to one's own person rather than merely goods and possessions.

The labour theory of property

Locke argued that when individuals "mix our labour" with the products of nature, they establish justified ownership of material goods. This creates a natural right to property that exists prior to government and provides one of the key reasons why people form political societies.

Property and political society

The protection of property rights becomes one of the fundamental purposes of government. People enter into the social contract partly to secure better protection for their property than they could achieve in the state of nature.

Civil disobedience and resistance

Locke's commitment to legitimate governance led him to develop a sophisticated theory of civil disobedience and resistance to unjust power. His approach to resistance was carefully reasoned and constrained by moral principles.

Illegitimate power

Locke identified illegitimate power as unlimited, despotic, and autocratic - essentially the kind of absolute monarchy that existed before the English Civil War. Such power denies the rights and responsibilities that come with legitimate authority and betrays the trust placed in government by society.

Conditions for resistance

Locke established clear limitations on when resistance becomes justified. The right to resist unjust authority applies not only to domestic citizens but also to conquered peoples under autocratic control. However, resistance must meet specific criteria to be morally justified.

The right to revolution

While Locke supported the right to dissent and resist unjust authority, he recognised that revolution represents an extreme measure that must be carefully constrained. His theory of revolution balances the need to resist tyranny with respect for political stability and legal processes.

Limitations on revolution

Locke outlined several important restrictions on revolutionary action:

Criteria for justified revolution

Revolution becomes morally acceptable only when three conditions are met:

• Government actions are illegal and no legal recourse is available to address grievances
• Government actions conflict with the general will or common good of society
• Government has lost the consent of the people and no longer represents their interests

As Locke declared: "Whenever the legislators endeavour to take away or destroy the property of the people, or to reduce them to slavery under arbitrary power they put themselves into a state of war with the people, who are thereupon absolved from any further obedience, and are left to the common refuge, which God hath provided for all men against force and violence: resistance."

Locke's enduring influence

Locke's political philosophy provides a systematic alternative to both absolute monarchy and anarchistic individualism. His ideas about natural rights, government by consent, and limited political authority profoundly influenced democratic revolutions and constitutional developments in England, America, and beyond.

His synthesis of moral philosophy, political theory, and practical politics created a framework for understanding legitimate government that continues to shape political debate today. The principles of accountable government, individual rights, and the rule of law all trace their philosophical foundations to Locke's revolutionary thinking.