Martha Nussbaum (Leaving Cert Politics and Society): Revision Notes
Martha Nussbaum
Martha Nussbaum (1947-) is an influential American philosopher and Professor of Law and Ethics at the University of Chicago. Her work spans multiple areas including ancient philosophy, political philosophy, feminism, ethics, and animal rights. Nussbaum is particularly known for developing alternative approaches to measuring human wellbeing and promoting global justice.
Nussbaum's interdisciplinary approach combines rigorous philosophical analysis with practical policy recommendations, making her work highly influential in both academic and policy-making circles worldwide.
The capabilities approach
Nussbaum challenges traditional ways of measuring development and human rights. She criticises the common focus on Gross Domestic Product (GDP) as a measure of progress, arguing that "this crude measure can give high marks to countries that contain alarming inequalities, countries with a large proportion of people not enjoying the fruits of economic growth."
Working alongside Amartya Sen, Nussbaum developed the Human Development or Capabilities Approach. This approach shifts focus from what people possess to what they can actually achieve. She poses a fundamental question: "What are people actually able to do and to be? What real opportunities are available to them?"
The capabilities approach emphasises that true development must look beyond material wealth to examine the real opportunities available to individuals. Nussbaum argues this approach "is the counter-theory we need in an era of urgent human problems and of unjustifiable human inequalities."
Capabilities vs functionings
Nussbaum makes an important distinction between capabilities and functionings:
- Capabilities represent what a person is able to do or be
- Functionings are the active realisation of those capabilities
She argues that "capabilities not functionings are the appropriate political goals, because room is thereby left for the exercise of human freedom." For example, governments should provide healthcare capabilities but cannot force people to adopt healthy lifestyles - the choice remains with the individual.
The ten central capabilities
Nussbaum outlines ten central capabilities that governments must provide to ensure genuine human rights. This comprehensive framework goes beyond basic survival needs to include emotional, social, and political dimensions of human flourishing:
- Life: Being able to live a full, healthy life
- Health: Being able to enjoy health, shelter, and nourishment
- Bodily integrity: Being able to move freely without assault and choose one's partner
- Senses, imagination, thought: Access to arts, sciences, education, and freedom of religious and cultural expression
- Emotions: Being able to fully engage human emotions
- Practical reasoning: Being afforded full, measured and logical decisions
- Affiliation: Being able to affiliate with political ideologies and parties
- Other species: Being able to live with concern for other species
- Play: Being able to engage in human joviality, laughter, and play
- Control over environment: Being able to exercise personal agency regarding marriage and politics
Practical Application: Healthcare as a Capability
Consider healthcare as a capability: A government fulfils this obligation by ensuring accessible healthcare systems, trained medical professionals, and preventive care programmes. However, an individual may choose not to visit a doctor when ill - this choice represents their freedom. The government's role is to ensure the capability exists, not to force the functioning.
Education and world citizenship
Nussbaum believes education should "cultivate humanity" and develop world citizens. She identifies three essential capacities that modern education must foster:
- Critical examination: The ability to question accepted beliefs rather than accepting them simply because of tradition
- Global citizenship: Seeing oneself as bound to all other human beings through recognition and concern
- Narrative imagination: The ability to think about different perspectives and experiences
Influenced by Socrates, Nussbaum advocates for liberal education that creates critical and independent minds. She warns that democracy requires citizens who can reason about their beliefs: "It is not good for democracy when people vote on the basis of sentiments they have absorbed from talk-radio and have never questioned. The failure to think critically produces a democracy in which people talk to each other but never have a genuine dialogue."
Nussbaum's educational philosophy draws heavily from the Socratic method, emphasising questioning, dialogue, and critical self-examination rather than passive absorption of information.
Feminism and global justice
In her work "Sex and Social Justice," Nussbaum connects her passion for social justice with feminist critique. She highlights that "Many women all over the world find themselves treated unequally with respect to employment, bodily safety and integrity, basic nutrition and health care, education, and political voice. In many cases these hardships are caused by their being women, and in many cases laws and institutions construct or perpetuate these inequalities."
Her feminist approach is characterised by five key features:
- Internationalist - addressing global women's issues
- Humanist - focusing on human dignity
- Liberal - emphasising individual freedom
- Concerned with social shaping of preferences and desires
- Sympathetic understanding - promoting empathy across differences
Nussbaum's feminism is distinctive for its global perspective and its integration with human rights theory, making it particularly relevant for addressing women's issues in developing nations.
Critique of liberalism
Nussbaum challenges contemporary liberalism and neoliberal economic policy, arguing they focus too heavily on negative liberty while neglecting positive freedoms. She advocates for positive liberty - the freedom to actually achieve meaningful goals - rather than just freedom from interference.
She promotes the concept of a social minimum that "should be respected and implemented by the governments of all nations." This represents a more compassionate form of liberalism that actively works to create opportunities for the disadvantaged.
While traditional liberalism focuses on removing barriers (negative liberty), Nussbaum argues we must also ensure people have the actual resources and opportunities to achieve their goals (positive liberty). This requires active government intervention to create genuine equality of opportunity.
Key Points to Remember:
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Capabilities approach - focuses on what people can actually do and achieve, not just what they possess
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Ten central capabilities - comprehensive framework covering life, health, education, political participation, and human dignity
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Education for world citizenship - developing critical thinking, global awareness, and empathy through liberal, Socratic education
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Global feminism - addressing women's inequality worldwide through internationalist, humanist approach
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Social minimum - governments must ensure basic capabilities are available to all citizens as foundation for true human development