Development in Philosophical Thought (Leaving Cert Religious Education): Revision Notes
From Classical to Contemporary Philosophy
Understanding philosophical development
Philosophy has evolved through distinct periods where thinking fundamentally changed and developed. To understand these changes, it's important to examine what came before and after each key moment to see how philosophical thought transformed.
Understanding philosophical development requires examining the transitions between periods rather than studying each era in isolation. Each philosophical movement both builds upon and reacts against previous thinking.
Key moment 1: Ancient Greece
The shift from mythical to logical thinking
Ancient Greek philosophy marked a revolutionary change in how people explained the world around them. Initially, Greek society relied on mythical explanations, where Zeus and the gods of Mount Olympus provided the reasons for natural phenomena and human existence. This mythical approach gradually gave way to logical reasoning and rational investigation.
The Natural Philosophers were crucial in this transition. These early thinkers began seeking logical explanations for natural phenomena rather than accepting mythological accounts. This shift represented the birth of rational inquiry and systematic thinking about the world.
The transition from mythical to logical thinking wasn't just a change in explanations - it represented a fundamental shift in how humans approached understanding reality. This laid the foundation for all subsequent philosophical and scientific development.
From natural world to human-centred philosophy
Philosophy underwent another significant development when focus shifted from studying the natural world to examining human concerns and behaviour. The Sophists and Socrates were major contributors to this transformation, moving philosophical attention from external natural phenomena to questions about how people should live and what constitutes knowledge.
The emergence of ethical thinking
Ancient Greece also witnessed the development of ethical philosophy, particularly the debate between moral absolutes and moral relativism. This philosophical tension began with the Sophists, especially Protagoras, who famously declared that "Man is the measure of all things," suggesting that moral truths were relative to human perspective.
Socrates later developed his philosophy around moral absolutes, arguing for universal principles of justice and ethics. This created an ongoing philosophical dialogue between those who believed in objective moral truths and those who saw morality as relative to human experience and culture.
Philosophical Debate: Absolute vs. Relative Morality
Sophist Position (Protagoras): "Man is the measure of all things"
- Moral truths depend on individual or cultural perspective
- What is right in one society may be wrong in another
Socratic Position: Universal moral principles exist
- Justice and virtue have objective definitions
- Moral knowledge can be discovered through rational inquiry
Key moment 2: The Enlightenment
The Age of Reason
The Enlightenment, occurring between the 17th and 18th centuries, became known as the Age of Reason. This period saw dramatic changes in scientific knowledge, geographical exploration, and religious beliefs. A significant development was the growing conflict between the world of science and the world of religion.
During this time, people began believing they were responsible for their own destiny and didn't need God or the Church to guide their decisions. This shift towards individual responsibility and rational thinking fundamentally changed how people approached questions of knowledge and truth.
The Enlightenment represented a cultural shift where reason became the primary source of authority and legitimacy, challenging traditional institutions like the Church and monarchy. This period laid the groundwork for modern democratic societies and scientific advancement.
René Descartes and systematic doubt
René Descartes (1596-1650) became known as the Father of Modern Philosophy because he established a new foundation for philosophical thinking. Living in an age of scepticism with conflicting claims and unreliable knowledge sources, Descartes sought to create a method for establishing certain knowledge.
His approach, called Systematic Doubt or Rationalism, involved deliberately doubting anything that could possibly be false. This method saw the mind, rather than the senses, as the starting point for reliable knowledge. Descartes famously doubted all empirical evidence gained through the five senses, arguing that our senses often deceive us.
Systematic Doubt is not mere scepticism for its own sake. Descartes used doubt as a methodical tool to strip away uncertain beliefs and discover what could be known with absolute certainty. This methodical approach became fundamental to modern philosophy and scientific method.
"I think therefore I am"
Through his process of systematic doubt, Descartes discovered one thing he could not doubt: his own existence as a thinking being. Even if he was dreaming or being deceived, the very fact that he was thinking proved his existence. This led to his famous statement "Cogito ergo sum" - "I think therefore I am".
For Descartes, this became the bedrock of certain knowledge. Even a false thought is still a thought, proving the existence of a thinking being. From this certainty, he attempted to reconstruct knowledge about the external world, ultimately arguing that God's existence guaranteed the reliability of clear and distinct ideas.
Descartes' Method in Action
Step 1: Doubt everything that can be doubted
- Senses can deceive us
- Mathematical truths might be illusions
- The external world might not exist
Step 2: Find what cannot be doubted
- The act of doubting proves thinking
- Thinking proves existence
Step 3: Establish foundation
- "I think therefore I am" becomes the certain foundation
- From this, rebuild knowledge systematically
Key moment 3: Existentialism (19th-20th Century)
Individual existence as starting point
Existentialism emerged as a philosophical approach emphasising the existence of the individual person as a free and responsible agent who determines their own development through acts of will. Søren Kierkegaard was the first philosopher to be called an existentialist.
This philosophy marked another major development by making individual existence the starting point for knowledge. Unlike previous philosophers who believed divine or metaphysical forces were involved in human existence, existentialism focused entirely on the individual's existence and personal responsibility.
Existentialism represents a radical departure from traditional philosophy by starting with concrete human existence rather than abstract concepts or divine authority. This "existence before essence" approach means humans must create their own meaning and purpose.
Friedrich Nietzsche's contributions
Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) became one of the most influential and controversial existentialist philosophers. His ideas fundamentally challenged traditional moral and religious thinking.
Nietzsche developed several key concepts that shaped modern philosophy:
"God is dead": This famous declaration meant that the idea of God was no longer relevant in contemporary life. Faith in God had become incredible in a world where most phenomena could be explained without reference to a higher being.
Rejection of absolute morality: Nietzsche believed that morality was manufactured by society to control people. He argued there was no absolute moral truth and that concepts of good and evil were human constructions rather than objective realities.
The Übermensch: In a world without absolute moral or scientific truth, Nietzsche believed human behaviour should be judged by greatness and excellence. His concept of the "super-man" or Übermensch described an individual who creates their own values beyond conventional categories of good and evil.
"Will to power": Nietzsche identified willpower as what defines individuals as great or successful. This "will to power" represents the driving force that enables people to overcome life's obstacles and achieve excellence. The power of will becomes the indicator of human greatness and achievement.
Understanding Nietzsche's "God is Dead"
This statement doesn't mean God literally died, but rather that:
- Traditional religious authority has lost its power in modern society
- Scientific explanations have replaced religious ones for most phenomena
- Individuals must now create meaning without relying on divine guidance
- This creates both freedom and responsibility for human self-determination
Nihilism and self-creation
Nietzsche's philosophy led to the development of nihilism - the rejection of all religious and moral principles, often accompanied by the belief that life is meaningless. However, rather than accepting meaninglessness, Nietzsche argued that individuals must create their own meaning through cultivating physical and psychological strength, ultimately becoming their own Übermensch.
Nietzsche's Path from Nihilism to Self-Creation
The Problem: Traditional sources of meaning (God, absolute morality) no longer provide guidance
The Challenge: This creates nihilism - the sense that life has no inherent meaning
The Solution: Individuals must become their own creators of value
- Develop "will to power"
- Transcend conventional good and evil
- Become the Übermensch who creates personal meaning and values
Key Points to Remember:
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Ancient Greece marked the transition from mythical explanations to logical reasoning, and from natural philosophy to human-centred thinking, establishing the foundation for ethical debates between moral absolutes and relativism.
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The Enlightenment introduced systematic doubt and rationalism through Descartes, who established "I think therefore I am" as the foundation for certain knowledge and individual responsibility for understanding truth.
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Existentialism shifted focus entirely to individual existence and personal responsibility, with Nietzsche challenging traditional morality and introducing concepts like the Übermensch and "will to power."
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Each philosophical period built upon and reacted to previous thinking, showing how philosophy develops through ongoing dialogue and challenge rather than simple progression.
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These three moments demonstrate philosophy's movement from external authorities (gods, church, tradition) towards individual reason and personal responsibility as sources of meaning and knowledge.