Socrates (Leaving Cert Religious Education): Revision Notes
Socrates
Background and context
Socrates lived in Athens from 470-399BCE during the classical Greek period. He became a controversial figure who was critical of the Athenian government and was ultimately executed in 399BCE. The charges against him included introducing new gods and corrupting the youth of Athens, though his student Plato believed these accusations were false.
While some scholars debate whether Socrates was a real person or just a character created by Plato, most believe he existed and that his thinking established the foundations for all Western philosophy that followed.
Socrates was the teacher and mentor of Plato, and most of what we know about his ideas comes from Plato's writings and those of Xenophon. His philosophical approach was so distinctive that it fundamentally changed how people thought about knowledge, ethics, and the purpose of life.
The Socratic method
Socrates developed a distinctive philosophical approach known as the Socratic method. This involved engaging in dialogues with people who considered themselves experts on particular subjects. Through careful and insightful questioning, Socrates would reveal how little these supposed experts actually knew about their topics of expertise.
This method aimed to encourage people to question what they believed to be true and discover what they genuinely knew. Rather than simply accepting common opinions, Socrates pushed people to examine their beliefs critically. His approach often left people feeling resentful and angry when they realised their ignorance on subjects they thought they understood well.
Example: The Socratic Method in Practice
Imagine Socrates meeting someone who claims to be an expert on "courage." He might ask:
- "What is courage?"
- "Is courage always good?"
- "Can someone be courageous but also foolish?"
Through this questioning, the supposed expert would gradually realise they couldn't clearly define courage, despite thinking they understood it completely.
Socrates was particularly critical of the Sophists - other philosophers of his time who taught wealthy people rhetoric and persuasion skills for public office. He compared rhetoric to fancy cookery and cosmetics, arguing that these were forms of flattery designed to please customers rather than provide what was actually good for them. For Socrates, this approach prioritised appearance and persuasion over truth and genuine knowledge.
Main idea 1: Ethics and the good life
Living ethically
For Socrates, the central question of philosophy was "how should we live?". He firmly believed that humans should not live according to appetite, pleasure, appearance, or persuasion alone. Instead, we should use our rational capacity to understand the true nature of concepts like truth, goodness, and justice.
Socrates argued that "the really important thing is not to live but to live well" - and to live well meant to live ethically. He believed that virtue was both necessary and sufficient for happiness, meaning that you cannot be truly happy without being virtuous, and if you are virtuous, you will be happy.
The relationship between knowledge and virtue
A key aspect of Socratic ethics was his belief that knowing what was good was the same as doing what was good. He argued that once you truly knew what the ethically right decision was, you would always choose to do it, because this knowledge would nourish your soul.
This led to his famous principle: "it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong". Socrates believed it was not permissible to do wrong once you knew what was morally correct, as this would damage your soul and prevent true happiness.
Care of the soul
Socrates taught that the soul needed to be cared for and nourished. This was achieved by gaining wisdom - understanding the truth or essence of matters. Through philosophical inquiry, people could learn how to live virtuous lives and care for their souls, which he saw as the path to genuine happiness.
Living contrary to ethical understanding would tarnish the soul and make genuine happiness difficult to achieve. For Socrates, the health of the soul was just as important as physical health - if not more so.
Main idea 2: The concept of order and justice
Universal definition of justice
Socrates sought to discover a universal definition of justice - one that would be true for all people, always, and in all situations. This differed significantly from the Sophists, who believed in the relativity of moral issues. The Sophists argued that truth and justice depended on individual situations, context, and personal perspective.
Socrates felt that this relative approach would lead to the destruction of Athenian society. He believed that there must be absolute standards of justice that applied universally, not just personal or situational standards.
Order creates harmony
Socrates developed a concept of order that was central to his philosophy. He believed that order is good and disorder is evil. This principle could be seen in various aspects of life - for example, the health of an organism reflects the presence of order or harmony among its parts, while sickness represents a lack of harmony.
Order is justice which edifies the soul, while disorder creates suffering and diminishes the soul.
Example: Order and Disorder in Action
Socrates used the analogy of a football match to illustrate this concept: when a clear and fair decision is made (even if a team disagrees with it), order and harmony are maintained. However, when an unjust or dubious decision is made, it creates disorder, anger, and protest.
Living justly
Socrates advocated that the path to true happiness involved temperance, moderation, ethical living, and justice. He condemned injustice because it destroys the order and harmony of both individual souls and the state as a whole. He maintained that it was better to suffer injustice than to inflict it on others.
Influence on the development of philosophy
Socrates made several crucial contributions to the development of philosophical thinking that continue to influence how we approach ethical questions today.
Shift from natural to human concerns
He moved philosophy beyond reflections on the natural world (which had been the focus of earlier philosophers like the Natural Philosophers) towards ethics and human behaviour. Socrates recognised that some of the most important and difficult questions related to the person rather than the physical world.
Foundation of ethical philosophy
Socrates was instrumental in establishing ethics as a key discipline within philosophy. His continuous search for truth, justice, and ethical principles gave philosophy concepts that are still debated today.
Alternative to relativism
In Ancient Greece, his philosophical ideas on ethics contrasted sharply with the dominant Sophist view. While Sophists believed morality and justice were defined by each person according to their own standards, Socrates provided an alternative view based on universal principles.
Modern applications
The concept of order that Socrates discussed has even influenced modern psychology and counselling practices, as professionals try to help patients find harmony and order in their minds and lives. His insight that justice is central to order helps explain why people who have experienced injustices often suffer from mental disharmony.
Key Points to Remember:
- The Socratic method involved questioning supposed experts to expose their ignorance and collaboratively seek truth through dialogue
- Living ethically is the purpose of life - Socrates believed "it is better to suffer wrong than to do wrong" and that virtue leads to happiness
- Order and justice are universal - unlike the Sophists who believed in moral relativity, Socrates sought absolute definitions of justice that applied to everyone
- Philosophy should focus on human concerns - Socrates shifted philosophical inquiry from the natural world to ethics and how we should live
- Care for the soul through wisdom - gaining knowledge of truth and living virtuously nourishes the soul and leads to genuine happiness