Cultural Variations in Attachment (AQA A-Level Psychology): Revision Notes
Cultural variations in attachment
Cultural variations in attachment refer to differences in child-rearing practices and attachment types between different cultural groupings. This area of research examines whether Bowlby's attachment theory applies universally across cultures or varies depending on cultural practices and values.
Theoretical background
Bowlby's evolutionary perspective suggests that if attachments evolved and have survival value, patterns of attachment types should be similar across different cultures, regardless of child-rearing styles used within those cultures. Secure attachments should dominate in all cultures, with equal amounts of insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant types.
Evolutionary Perspective on Attachment
Bowlby's theory predicts that because attachment behaviours evolved for survival, we should see similar patterns of attachment types across all cultures, with secure attachment being the most common type everywhere.
Belsky (1999) proposed an evolutionary explanation for similar attachment types across cultures. He argued that insecure attachment types are associated with weak adult relationships and early sexual activity, which could be useful in certain situations, like after famines or plagues when reproduction is necessary for survival without forming strong emotional bonds.
However, if different patterns of attachment types are found cross-culturally, it would suggest that infant attachment types are not purely biological but learned through exposure to different cultural child-rearing styles.
Cross-cultural differences in child-rearing practices
Child-rearing styles vary significantly across cultures. In some cultures, one person does most caregiving, whilst in others, many carers are involved. There are also cross-cultural differences in how different attachment types are regarded.
For example, Keebye et al. (2014) found that in Britain, insecure-avoidant attachment tends to be viewed negatively as it is associated with weak attachments to people. However, in Germany it tends to be valued as it is associated with being independent from others, which is viewed positively in German culture. Consequently, in Germany many more infants are classed as being insecure-avoidant.
Cultural Values Shape Attachment Perceptions
The same attachment behaviour can be viewed very differently across cultures - what's seen as problematic in one culture might be valued in another, leading to different rates of classification.
Key study: Cross-cultural patterns of attachment
Key Study: van IJzendoorn & Kroonenberg, Meta-analysis of the Strange Situation, 1988
Participants: 1,990 separate Strange Situation classifications from 32 studies across 8 countries, comprising at least 35 mother-infant pairs with infants below 2 years of age.
Aim:
- To assess whether there was a pattern in the distribution of different attachment types within separate samples
- To assess the extent of inter-cultural and intra-cultural differences in attachment types
- To assess similarities and differences in the amount of Type A, B and C attachment types in separate samples
Procedure: A meta-analysis of 32 studies from 8 countries that used the Strange Situation procedure to assess mother-child attachments. The studies classified attachments as either Type A, B or C.
Findings: The results showed both similarities and differences across cultures:
- Overall attachment distribution: Type A = 21%, Type B = 67%, Type C = 12%
- Cross-cultural similarities: Type B attachment predominated in all cultures
- Cross-cultural differences:
- Germany had the highest proportion of Type A attachment (35%)
- Israel and Japan showed high levels of Type C attachment (29% and 27% respectively)
- China showed equal proportions of all three types (25% each)
- Intra-cultural differences: Often greater than inter-cultural differences, with some USA samples showing 94% Type A attachments whilst others showed only 47%
Evaluation:
Strengths:
- Large sample size providing robust statistical power
- Systematic meta-analysis approach reducing individual study biases
- Covered multiple cultures providing good cross-cultural representation
Weaknesses:
- Data drawn from cultures not represented in the meta-analysis would be required before universal conclusions could be drawn
- Some intra-cultural differences may be due to socio-economic factors rather than cultural differences
- The Strange Situation may represent an imposed etic, wrongly imposing cultural-specific beliefs onto other cultures
Key Finding: Intra-cultural vs Inter-cultural Differences
One of the most significant findings was that differences within cultures were often greater than differences between cultures. This suggests that factors other than culture alone (such as socio-economic status) may significantly influence attachment patterns.
Key study: Dogon people attachment patterns
Key Study: McMahon-True, Pisani & Oumar, Infant-mother attachment among the Dogon people of Mali, 2001
Participants: 42 mother and infant pairs from rural Dogon villages, with infants aged 10 months to 12.5 months at first assessment.
Aims:
- To assess whether infant attachment types are different in a culture that raises infants using natural parenting methods
- To assess whether attachment security was related to the quality of mother-infant communications
- To assess whether mothers of secure infants respond more sensitively than mothers of insecure infants
Procedure: The Strange Situation method was used to assess attachment styles. Results were compared to those from four North American samples, with a total of 306 mother-infant pairs tested.
Findings:
- Dogon sample: 0% avoidant, 67% secure, 8% resistant, 25% disorganised
- North American sample: 23% avoidant, 55% secure, 8% resistant, 15% disorganised
- Many Dogon children had their grandmother as principal carer during the day, but attachment classifications were unaffected by the type of primary caregiver
- Positive correlations were found between maternal sensitivity and infant security ratings
Conclusions: Children raised by natural child-rearing practices have higher levels of secure attachment and no insecure-avoidant attachments. This is explained by the incompatibility of Dogon child-rearing practices with Western cultural child-rearing practices associated with insecure-avoidant styles.
Evaluation:
Strengths:
- Provides valuable insight into a culture where infants are raised by natural parenting practices
- Contrasts with more usual studies performed on Western cultural samples
- High proportion of secure attachments supports attachment theory predictions
Weaknesses:
- Small sample size limits generalisability
- The Strange Situation contains elements unfamiliar to Dogon infants, potentially creating bias
- Maternally sensitive mothers may be more likely to choose natural parenting procedures
The Dogon study provides particularly compelling evidence because it shows 0% insecure-avoidant attachment - a pattern that strongly contrasts with Western samples. This suggests that natural parenting practices may promote more secure attachments.
Additional research findings
Cross-cultural patterns in attachment research reveal several important findings that further illustrate cultural variations:
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Kyoung (2005) compared 87 Korean families with 113 American families, finding notable differences in infant behaviour but similar proportions of securely attached children in both cultures
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Grossmann & Grossmann (1991) found that German infants tended to be classified as insecurely attached, possibly due to German culture requiring 'distance' between parents and children
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Malin (1997) found that Aboriginal infants in Australia are discouraged from exploring and tend not to use their mothers as a safe base, leading to incorrect labelling as insecurely attached
Consistent Patterns Across Multiple Studies
Despite cultural differences in child-rearing practices, research consistently shows that secure attachment remains the most common type across cultures, though the proportions of insecure types vary significantly.
Evaluation of cultural attachment research
Cultural interpretation issues: Different patterns of reaction to the Strange Situation reflect cultural values and practices. The greater frequency of insecure-avoidant children in Germany reflects cultural emphasis on early independence training, whilst higher insecure-resistant attachment in Japan may result from stress during the Strange Situation due to infants' unfamiliarity with separation.
Cultural Interpretation Issues
Different patterns of reaction to the Strange Situation reflect cultural values and practices rather than deficits in attachment. What appears as "insecure" attachment may actually represent culturally appropriate behaviour.
Methodological concerns: Cross-cultural studies can suffer from imposed etic, where researchers analyse findings in a biassed manner based on their own cultural beliefs. The Strange Situation procedure may not be appropriate for all cultures, as it was developed based on Western child-rearing practices.
The Problem of Imposed Etic
When research methods developed in one culture are applied to another culture, the results may be misinterpreted. The Strange Situation was designed for Western attachment patterns and may not accurately measure attachment in cultures with different child-rearing practices.
Sample representation: Comparable studies are needed of infants naturally parented in Western cultures to make fair comparisons. Socio-economic factors within cultures may influence attachment patterns more than cultural differences themselves.
Key Points to Remember:
- Cultural variations in attachment refer to differences in child-rearing practices and attachment types between different cultural groupings
- Cross-cultural research shows Type B (secure) attachment predominates across all cultures, supporting Bowlby's evolutionary theory
- Intra-cultural differences (within cultures) are often greater than inter-cultural differences (between cultures)
- The Strange Situation may represent an imposed etic when applied to non-Western cultures, potentially creating biassed interpretations
- Cultural child-rearing practices significantly influence attachment patterns, with some cultures valuing independence (Germany) whilst others emphasise close physical contact (Dogon people)