Biographical Details (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Biographical Details
Introduction
Jeremy Bentham and Immanuel Kant were two highly influential philosophers who lived during the 18th and early 19th centuries. Despite being contemporaries, their backgrounds, approaches and aims were remarkably different. Understanding their biographical details helps explain why they developed such contrasting ethical theories.
Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832)
Early life and education
- English philosopher and social reformer
- Child prodigy who read extensively from an early age
- Attended Queen's College, Oxford at just 12 years old (1760)
- Achieved his Bachelor's degree three years later
- Completed his Master's degree three years after that
- Came from a wealthy family
Career and reform work
Bentham trained in law but never practised professionally. He became frustrated with the legal system's failure to protect the poorest members of society. Instead of practising law, he dedicated his life to social and political reform.
Key concerns that drove Bentham's work:
- Corruption and inequality in society
- The influence of those in power protecting their own interests rather than society's welfare (which he called 'sinister influence')
- Legal reform, particularly the harsh criminal justice system
- Establishing education free from Church influence
Major projects:
- Campaigned against corruption in the Port of London
- Attempted to persuade the government to build a new prison design called the 'Panopticon'
- Indirectly involved in establishing the University of London (now University College)
- Promoted equality and attacked privilege
Philosophical approach
Bentham was thoroughly practical in his thinking. He opposed what he saw as abstract, high-minded ideas, famously criticising natural law and natural rights as 'nonsense on stilts'.
His focus was on:
- Examining what would benefit society as a whole
- Judging actions by their practical results
- Understanding why people make the choices they do
- Contributing to what he hoped would become a science of human behaviour
Development of Utilitarianism
Bentham's Utilitarianism began as a theory of law rather than ethics. In his time, the English legal system was known as 'The Bloody Code' because around 200 offences were punishable by hanging.
The Primary Principle of Utility: the greatest happiness of the greatest number is the measure of right and wrong
- Laws should follow this primary principle
- A good law obeys the primary principle; a bad law does not
Views on law and morality
Bentham argued that law should not be based on:
- Too much respect for tradition
- Hatred of change
- Personal feelings (antipathy or sympathy)
- Fiction or fancy
- Religion
Progressive Views: Homosexuality Laws
Bentham believed laws criminalising homosexuality should be abolished. He argued that such laws were based on superstition and ignorance rather than rational assessment of harm. This was an extremely radical position for his time, demonstrating his commitment to basing laws on evidence and utility rather than tradition or religious doctrine.
Key concept: Utility
Utility refers to that property in any object which tends to produce benefit, advantage, pleasure, good or happiness, or to prevent mischief, pain, evil or unhappiness for the party whose interest is considered (whether an individual or the wider community).
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Early life and location
- Prussian philosopher born in Königsberg (now Kaliningrad, Russia)
- Spent his entire life in and around Königsberg
- Moved from school to university to teaching post, all in the same city
- Believed his paternal grandfather was Scottish
Professional career
Kant was the first major professional philosopher of modern times. Unlike earlier thinkers who were clergy, aristocrats, or general writers, Kant was an academic who:
- Taught students year by year
- Built up research notes systematically
- Produced a massive body of scholarly work
- Made philosophy his full-time profession
Major works
Kant produced an enormous output of intellectual material across various fields:
The Three Great Critiques:
- Critique of Pure Reason (1781)
- Critique of Practical Reason (1788)
- Critique of Judgement (1790)
Ethics:
- Groundwork of the Metaphysics of Morals (1785)
- The Metaphysics of Morals (1797)
Other significant works:
- Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens (1755) - attempted to explain the universe mechanistically without need for a creator God
- Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793)
- Eternal Peace (1795) - on international relations and war
Contributions beyond ethics
- Taught and contributed widely to science and astronomy
- Leading figure in the European Enlightenment
- Fascinated by the development of science
- Attempted to reconcile empirical evidence with certain knowledge
Personal character
Despite being an academic, Kant was not dull or isolated:
- Enjoyed hosting supper parties
- Known for good company
- Laced his lectures with wit
- Maintained a regular lifestyle while producing his academic work
Philosophical approach
Kant was profoundly influenced by science but recognised the limitations of relying solely on empirical evidence. He spent years developing a system of thought to address this.
Key philosophical shift (the 'Copernican Revolution'):
- We see the world as we do not because our minds conform to what is 'out there'
- Instead, our minds organise our experience
- We cannot know things as they are in themselves (noumena)
- We only know things as we perceive them to be (phenomena)
Religious background
- German Protestant influenced by the Pietist tradition
- Pietism emphasised personal experience over rational argument in religious matters
- Critical of traditional 'proofs' of God's existence
- Wanted to promote religion fully compatible with human reason
- After publishing Religion within the Limits of Reason Alone (1793), the university forbade him from publishing further on religion
Approach to morality
Kant concluded that:
- Morality cannot be based on evidence from the senses
- People have an inherent sense of right and wrong
- There are fundamental principles of human reason that underpin our morality
- Ethical thinking and religious conviction should be based on inner experience
Kant found inspiration in both 'the starry heavens above me' and 'the moral law within me', expressing his wonder at the external world and internal moral sense.
Comparing their contexts
Bentham's focus
Bentham dedicated himself to practical social reform, campaigning for justice that would benefit the greatest number of people in society. His work was grounded in real-world problems and consequences.
Kant's focus
Kant used careful, professional philosophical arguments to demonstrate fundamental principles of human reason underpinning morality. His approach was more abstract and systematic.
These contrasting backgrounds and aims shaped their very different ethical theories: Bentham's consequentialist Utilitarianism and Kant's deontological Categorical Imperative.
Key Points to Remember:
- Bentham (1748-1832): English social reformer who developed Utilitarianism as a practical theory of law focused on maximising happiness for the greatest number
- Kant (1724-1804): Prussian professional philosopher who developed systematic ethical theory based on rational principles and duty
- Different approaches: Bentham focused on practical consequences and social reform; Kant focused on rational principles and moral law
- Key concepts: Bentham emphasised utility and the greatest happiness principle; Kant emphasised reason, duty and the categorical imperative
- Their backgrounds matter: Understanding their lives and contexts helps explain why they developed such different ethical theories