Introduction to Normative Ethical Theories (AQA A-Level Religious Studies): Revision Notes
Introduction to Normative Ethical Theories
What are normative ethical theories?
Normative ethical theories establish standards and principles for determining right and wrong behaviour. The term 'normative' derives from 'norm', meaning a standard or rule. These theories set out moral norms - the standards or principles people are expected to follow.
Different normative theories offer different answers to fundamental questions:
- What makes an action moral?
- What things are good or bad?
- What behaviour is right as opposed to wrong?
Understanding these foundational questions helps clarify why different ethical theories can reach different conclusions about the same moral dilemma. Each theory prioritizes different aspects of ethical decision-making.
The three main approaches to normative ethics are:
- Deontological
- Teleological
- Character-based
The three theories in your specification
Your course examines three specific normative ethical theories:
Natural moral law (with reference to Aquinas, the principle of double effect, and proportionalism)
- Primarily a deontological theory
Situation ethics (with reference to Fletcher)
- A teleological theory
Virtue ethics (with reference to Aristotle)
- Both teleological and character-based
These approaches are not mutually exclusive. Teleological elements appear in virtue ethics, situation ethics, and natural moral law. This overlap demonstrates the complexity of ethical theories and why understanding the underlying approaches is crucial for analysis.
Deontological ethics
Core meaning
Deontology: The approach to ethics where the rightness or wrongness of an act is judged by its conformity to duties, rules and obligations.
The word comes from the Greek deon, meaning 'obligation', 'necessity', or 'that which is binding'. These translate into the concept of 'duty'.
Key features
Deontological theories tell us our moral duties. These duties form the basis of moral rules that must be followed regardless of consequences.
Central elements:
- Duties and obligations
- Moral rules
- Rights
- Intrinsic value (built-in goodness)
The moral worth of an action lies in conforming to duties and rules, not in considering consequences.
Intrinsic value and rights
Following rules carries intrinsic (built-in) value, which creates corresponding rights:
- Following 'Do not murder' implies you have the right not to be murdered
- Following 'Do not steal' implies a right to property
The Connection Between Duties and Rights
This relationship between duties and rights is fundamental to deontological ethics. When we recognize a duty not to perform certain actions, we simultaneously recognize that others have a right not to have those actions performed against them. This creates a reciprocal system of moral obligations and protections.
Common deontological rules
Deontologists follow moral rules such as:
- Do not murder
- Do not steal
- Do not lie
- Do not break your promises
These can be expressed using 'ought': certain actions ought or ought not to be performed.
Determining right and wrong
Acts are intrinsically right or wrong - good for their own sake. Their moral status is built into the world and can be discovered through:
- Reason
- Studying the world
- Knowing the will of God (in religious deontology)
This intrinsic goodness explains why deontologists emphasise motive and intention.
Potential issues
The Problem of Absolute Rules
Deontological ethics can lead to situations where following rules produces harmful consequences. If you have a duty not to lie, but telling the truth causes someone's death, the absolute value of the rule becomes questionable. This highlights a key criticism: should moral rules ever be broken if following them leads to terrible outcomes?
Teleological ethics
Core meaning
The term derives from the Greek telos, meaning 'end', 'goal', or 'purpose'. You may recognise this from the Design (Teleological) Argument for God's existence.
In ethics, the end, goal or purpose refers to our responsibilities in bringing about specific consequences. To determine how to behave morally, you must decide what the ultimate goal of ethics should be.
Key features
Consequentialist approach: Teleological theories are consequentialist - they judge actions by their outcomes. The reasoning is straightforward: achieving the best consequence in any situation generally contributes to the overall ethical goal.
Focus on results: To discover how to behave morally:
- Identify the ultimate goal of ethics
- Assess what consequences your actions will produce
- Choose actions that best achieve that goal
Applying Teleological Reasoning
When facing a moral dilemma from a teleological perspective, you must always ask: "What outcome am I trying to achieve?" and "Which action will best produce that outcome?" This requires careful consideration of likely consequences and their relationship to the ethical goal you've identified.
Example: Situation ethics
Worked Example: Situation Ethics as Teleological Theory
Fletcher's Situation Ethics demonstrates teleological thinking in practice:
Step 1: Identify the ultimate goal
- The purpose of morally good behaviour is to maximise love
Step 2: Assess consequences
- Consider which action will produce the most loving outcome in the situation
Step 3: Make the moral judgment
- An ethical action is judged by its end result - its consequences in producing the most loving outcome
This shows how teleological theories work: the morality of an action depends entirely on whether it achieves the desired goal (love), regardless of what rules it might break.
Character-based ethics
Act-centred vs agent-centred
Act-centred theories (deontological and teleological):
- Judge specific acts as good or bad, right or wrong
- Focus on what you do
Agent-centred theories (character-based):
- Focus on the person performing actions
- Goodness lies in the person, not the act
- Judge whether someone is habitually good or virtuous
Key features
Rather than following rules or calculating consequences, character-based ethics develops moral virtue over time. Goodness comes from cultivating ideal character traits throughout your life.
The Development of Character
Character-based ethics recognizes that becoming a good person is a lifelong process. It's not about making individual correct decisions, but about consistently practicing virtues until they become part of who you are. This shifts the focus from "What should I do?" to "What kind of person should I become?"
Example: Virtue ethics
Aristotle's Virtue Ethics is the primary example. A good person possesses ideal character traits.
A virtuous person acts kindly not because:
- Rules command it (deontology)
- It produces the best consequences (teleology)
But because they have developed and nurtured kindness as part of their character over a lifetime.
Summary comparison
Key Differences Between Ethical Approaches:
Deontological theories:
- Based on laws, rules, duties and rights
- Rules must be obeyed without reference to consequences
- What is good or right is following moral rules
- Act-centred
Teleological theories:
- Based on achieving a goal or purpose
- Seek to bring about the best consequences of actions
- Actions judged by their outcomes
- Act-centred
Character-based theories:
- Based on persons rather than actions
- Emphasise moral character and virtues
- Focus on developing good character traits over time
- Agent-centred
- Not primarily concerned with rules, duties, or consequences
Exam tips
Essential Points for Exam Success:
- These are types of ethical theory, not theories themselves
- Natural moral law, situation ethics, and virtue ethics are specific theories that fit these types
- Theories can contain elements of more than one approach
- Use precise terminology: deontological, teleological, consequentialist, intrinsic, agent-centred, act-centred
- Provide clear examples when explaining each approach
Remember!
Core Concepts to Master:
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Normative ethics establishes standards for right and wrong behaviour based on moral norms
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Deontology judges actions by conformity to duties and rules, regardless of consequences - emphasises intrinsic rightness and the importance of motive and intention
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Teleology judges actions by their consequences and whether they achieve the desired goal - takes a consequentialist approach
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Character-based ethics focuses on developing virtuous character traits over time rather than following rules or calculating consequences
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These approaches can overlap - virtue ethics is both teleological and character-based; natural moral law contains teleological ideas despite being primarily deontological