The Meanings of Morality (Leaving Cert Religious Education): Revision Notes
Moral Thought in Ancient Civilisations
Understanding moral thought in ancient civilisations helps us see how different societies approached questions of right and wrong. Three major ancient civilisations - the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans - each developed distinct moral frameworks that continue to influence ethical thinking today.
These ancient moral systems laid the foundation for much of our modern ethical thinking. By studying how different civilisations approached morality, we can better understand the diversity of human moral reasoning and the common threads that connect different ethical traditions.
Hebrew moral thought: the concept of sin
The Hebrew approach to morality centred on the concept of sin, which represented a fundamental concern with obeying God's laws and maintaining spiritual purity.
The Torah as moral foundation
The Hebrew moral system was built upon the Torah, meaning "the law". This sacred text includes:
- The first five books of the Bible (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy)
- The famous Ten Commandments
- 613 additional laws given to the Levites (priests of the ancient Jewish temple)
These laws and commandments served as the complete moral guide for ancient Hebrew society and continue to influence Jewish moral thinking today.
For the Hebrews, moral behaviour was not based on personal choice or philosophical reasoning, but on divine commandment. This represents a fundamentally different approach to ethics compared to other ancient civilisations that relied more heavily on human reasoning and philosophy.
Understanding sin in Hebrew thought
For the Hebrews, committing a sin meant failing to follow God's commandments or laws. This was considered a spiritual crime that separated individuals from God (known as Hashem in Jewish tradition) and from their community.
Key aspects of Hebrew moral thought:
- Laws were seen as divinely given by God
- Following these laws was essential for being considered morally righteous
- Breaking any commandment or law constituted a sin
- Moral behaviour was about pleasing God and maintaining community acceptance
Example: Levitical Laws and Moral Purity
The book of Leviticus contains specific moral rules, such as prohibitions against wearing clothes made from mixed materials or planting fields with different types of seeds. These rules helped maintain moral purity within Hebrew society and demonstrated obedience to divine law.
Greek moral thought: ethics and the pursuit of happiness
Ancient Greek philosophers developed a sophisticated approach to morality focused on ethics - the study of how to live well and achieve true happiness.
Socratic philosophy and universal ethics
Socrates, one of the first recorded philosophers, believed that moral living was the purpose and goal of every individual. His key insights included:
- A universal understanding of right and wrong exists
- Once discovered, these moral truths would apply to everyone, for all time
- Living according to proper ethical standards leads to genuine happiness
- Justice and other virtues have objective, discoverable meanings
Socrates' approach was revolutionary because it suggested that morality could be discovered through reason and philosophical inquiry, rather than simply being handed down by divine authority or cultural tradition.
The Sophists and moral relativism
Not all Greek thinkers agreed with Socrates. The Sophists developed a different view:
- Each person measures morality against their own personal standards
- No universal standard for right and wrong exists
- Moral decisions depend on individual circumstances
- What makes a person happy becomes their moral guide
Example: Sophist Moral Reasoning
If faced with a life-or-death situation, a Sophist might argue that killing another person - normally considered wrong - could become morally acceptable if it ensures one's survival. The changed circumstances justify a different moral choice.
The core Greek principle
Despite philosophical disagreements, Greeks generally agreed that living ethically leads to true happiness. Whether following universal principles or personal standards, the ultimate goal remained the same - achieving a fulfilled and happy life.
Roman moral thought: Stoic virtues and temperance
Roman moral thinking was heavily influenced by Stoicism, a philosophical school that emphasised balance, resilience, and accepting life's challenges with dignity.
The Stoic approach to life
The Stoics were thinkers during the Roman Empire who developed practical wisdom for daily living:
- Life involves both difficulties and successes
- The key to moral living is maintaining balance and temperance
- People should accept life's disappointments and triumphs equally
- Moving forwards with resilience demonstrates true character
Stoicism was particularly appealing to Romans because it provided practical guidance for dealing with the realities of political life, military service, and social responsibility. Unlike some philosophical schools that focused on abstract theorising, Stoicism offered concrete advice for daily moral decision-making.
The four cardinal virtues
Stoic philosophers like Marcus Aurelius, Cicero, Epictetus, and Seneca identified four essential virtues:
- Courage - facing challenges bravely
- Justice - treating others fairly
- Temperance - maintaining balance and self-control
- Wisdom - making sound judgements
Practical Stoic ethics
Romans influenced by Stoicism believed that moral people should:
- Face daily adversity with composure
- Learn and improve from both positive and negative experiences
- Approach life's ups and downs in a considered, thoughtful manner
- Develop inner strength through accepting what cannot be changed
This balanced approach to handling life's challenges became a defining characteristic of Roman moral thought and influenced their understanding of what it meant to be a good person.
The Stoic emphasis on accepting what cannot be changed while working to improve what can be changed has had a lasting impact on psychological and therapeutic approaches, most notably in modern cognitive behavioural therapy.
Key distinctions between the civilisations
Each ancient civilisation approached morality differently, reflecting their unique cultural, religious, and philosophical traditions:
- Hebrews: Focused on sin and following divine law to please God
- Greeks: Emphasised living ethically to achieve true happiness
- Romans: Prioritised Stoic virtues (courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom) to maintain balance
These different approaches show how various societies have understood the fundamental question of how people should live and behave.
Key Points to Remember:
- Hebrew morality centred on avoiding sin by following God's laws found in the Torah, including the Ten Commandments and 613 additional laws
- Greek morality focused on ethics and achieving happiness, with debates between universal principles (Socrates) and personal standards (Sophists)
- Roman morality emphasised Stoic virtues - courage, justice, temperance, and wisdom - to maintain balance through life's challenges
- Each civilisation's moral framework reflected their religious beliefs, philosophical traditions, and social structures
- These ancient approaches continue to influence modern ethical thinking and moral decision-making